January 2022, vol.16, pp.41-55 DOI : https://doi.org/10.23158/jkaa.2022.v16_04
In July 1971, a brick tomb was discovered by chance in the Songsan-ri group of tombs in Gongju, Chungcheongnam-do Province. The stone epitaph plaque excavated from the burial chamber revealed that those interred in the tomb were King Muryeong (武寧王, r. 501–523), the twenty-fifth monarch of the Baekje Kingdom, and his Queen Consort. This discovery instigated archaeological research on the Ungjin period of Baekje. When the bricks closing the tomb entrance were removed, many items were discovered in their original state along the corridor from the entrance to the burial chamber. Most were Baekje artifacts, but a small quantity of items from the Southern Dynasties of China were also found. Most notably, luxurious items made of gold that had been worn by the King and Queen were discovered inside the wooden coffin. Since the 1990s, items similar to those excavated from the Tomb of King Muryeong have also been found in the ancient tombs of the Dae Gaya Kingdom. These artifacts included many items made in Baekje as well as items with Baekje-style features. But this aspect of exchange between the ancient kingdoms was not something that appeared for the first time in the early sixth century CE—it was a continuation of conditions existing during the latter half of Baekje’s Hanseong period. Unlike the Gaya tombs, however, the tombs of the Silla Kingdom have yielded only a small quantity of Baekje objects. This article investigates the artifacts excavated from the Tomb of King Muryeong, retrospectively linking them stylistically to the latter half of the Hanseong period in order to examine exchange between Baekje and its neighboring countries. Baekje–Silla Exchange The Baekje and Silla kingdoms shared borders, and while they did ally with each other at times, the periods of conflict between the two nations were longer than the periods of peace. Joining forces with Gaya and Wa (Japan), Baekje invaded the Silla capital of Gyeongju at one time. As for Silla, they decapitated King Seong (聖王, r. 523–554) of Baekje at the Battle of Gwansanseong Fortress. In 660 CE, Silla and Tang joined forces and conquered Baekje. Perhaps due to this flow of history, Silla items have rarely been excavated from Baekje historical sites, and Baekje items have rarely been excavated from Silla sites. Silla and Baekje maintained fairly amicable relations during the reigns of King Dongseong (東城王, r. 479–501) and King Muryeong. In the later years of the King Dongseong era, the royal houses of the two nations were united in marriage, and they continued on good terms until the reign of King Muryeong. Prior to the 520s, it was crucial for Silla to maintain friendly relations with Baekje as they had not been able to directly form diplomatic relations with the Southern Dynasties of China. According to the Liangshu (梁書, Book of Liang), “In 521, second year of the Putong era of Liang, for the first time Mojin [King Beopheung] of Silla sent envoys with the Baekje mission and offered jewels and accessories.”1 This record reflects Silla’s circumstances at the time and indicates that Baekje was the channel through which Silla received the diverse products and culture of China. Silla Elements in Artifacts from Baekje Tombs If the historical records are taken as the standard, Silla artifacts could potentially have been excavated from the Tomb of King Muryeong, but in reality, this is not the case. In contrast, a number of items made in China were discovered in the tomb. However, Silla elements can be partially detected in the earrings and the belt that were found there. What follows is an explanation of which aspects of these items can be regarded as Silla elements. 1. Earrings from the Tomb of King Muryeong (Fig. 1) These earrings consist of the main ring with two rows of pendants hanging from it: one with a heart-shaped ornament at the end and the other with a comma-shaped jade. The following examines the earrings based on the row of pendants with a heart-shaped end ornament. Fig. 1. Earrings from the Tomb of King Muryeong (bottom left photo: a trace of repair The middle ornament in this row has an unusual structure. It is composed of two cylindrical pieces joined together, top and bottom. Each cylindrical piece features three furled wing-shaped ornaments that are narrow at the top, rounded at the bottom and decorated with gold granules around the edge. A similar middle ornament can be seen in several artifacts, including the earrings from Hwango-ri Tomb No. 34 and Tomb No. 1 at 106-3 Hwangnam-dong in Gyeongju, from Seongsan-ri Tomb No. 1 in Hwawon, Daegu, and from Eta Funayama Tumulus in Kumamoto, Japan. Among them, the earrings discovered in Eta Funayama Tumulus appear to have been made in Baekje. The three pairs excavated from Gyeongju and Daegu were made in Silla during the first half of the sixth century CE. The shape of the middle ornament on the earrings from the Tomb of King Muryeong stands out from the general trend of Baekje earrings and seems to reflect the influence of Silla earrings. Earrings from the Three Kingdoms period are finished off by joining the separately made parts with gold wire or gold plate. For this reason, the metal pieces connecting the parts were also richly decorated. The connecting links on this pair of earrings from the Tomb of King Muryeong have an unusual structure. The two rings hanging from the central ring are wide and seemingly connect the middle ornament with the end ornament, but are, in fact, an ornament placed over the surface of the connecting link. This is the only pair of Baekje earrings to feature this style of connecting link, but similar examples can be seen on Silla earrings discovered in the southern coffin of Seobongchong (Auspicious Phoenix Tomb), Cheonmachong (Tomb of the Heavenly Horse), and Noseo-ri Tomb No. 138. Gaya earrings with the same kind of connecting link were found in Okjeon Tomb No. M4, Hapcheon. As the techniques used in the connecting link of the earrings from the Tomb of King Muryeong are the exception to the general stylistic and manufacturing trend of Baekje earrings, it would seem appropriate to trace the lineage of these earrings to Silla. The end ornament is composed of three pieces made of gold sheet. The largest piece in the middle is flat and heart-shaped. Attached to the front and back are circular pieces with a concave surface. A trace of repair remains on the inner side. The top of a smaller piece hanging from the connecting link had been lost, so the piece has been tied on with gold wire. The earrings from the Tomb of King Muryeong are composed of diverse parts. Essentially, they are made of hammered gold sheets, and were welded or assembled using sophisticated techniques such as gold granulation. In terms of techniques, they are similar to earrings made in the Silla and Gaya kingdoms. King Muryeong ascended the throne in 501 CE and passed away in 523 CE. After the funeral procedures and rites, he was interred in the tomb in 525 CE. Therefore, there is a possibility that the King’s earrings were also made in the first quarter of the sixth century CE. 2. King Muryeong’s Belt (Figs. 2) This belt was made entirely from metal, without the use of any leather, and is the most luxurious of all extant Baekje belts. The pendants hanging from it are decorated with tortoise, demon-face, white tiger, and red phoenix designs. Figs. 2. Belt from the Tomb of King Muryeong and its design The buckle is in the form of a mushroom on its side and the chape, connecting the buckle to the rest of the belt, is a seven-leaf-shaped ornament with a heart-shaped perforation in the center. The metal plaques making up the belt links (K. gwapan) are oval in shape with no openwork design, similar to those found on the pendants of Silla belts. Small plaques and large plaques are alternately linked together. The belt’s tip ornament is almost pentagonal in shape, and also has a heart-shaped perforation in the center. The belt pendant has a pentagonal gold-plate fitting at the top, featuring an openwork tortoise design. The rectangular plate further down features a demon-face design. The long rectangular end ornament, in the shape of a ritual plaque, is engraved with a white tiger and red phoenix design. It may be possible to associate the design on the pentagonal fitting with the image of the moon (in the form of a tortoise), and the design on the rectangular silver end ornament with the mural of the four guardian deities in Goguryeo tomb murals. If such speculation is valid, then the tortoise on the belt of King Muryeong can be seen as a representation of the moon, the tiger and phoenix as two of the four guardian deities, and the demon face as the mediator between heaven and earth. The Baekje people possibly had an awareness and understanding of these icons that were introduced from China via Goguryeo and chose to express half the icons on the pendant. Among Baekje belts made during the Hanseong and Ungjin periods, there are some with metal links decorated with an openwork dragon design or molded demon-face design, or are shaped like an inverted heart. In contrast, the links on the belts from the Sabi period are mostly shaped like an inverted heart. Therefore, the gold and silver links on the belt found in the Tomb of King Muryeong are unusual since they do not follow this general trend. That is, the links consist of big and small oval plaques hooked together; no similar example has yet been found in any neighboring country. There is merely a similarity with the Silla belt pendants of the sixth century CE, the earliest being the artifacts from Cheonmachong (Tomb of the Heavenly Horse). A notable discovery was the two silver-plate belt tip ornaments (Fig. 3) similar to those from Geumgwanchong (Gold Crown Tomb) in Gyeongju (Fig. 4) and Songsan-ri Tomb No. 4 (formerly No. 1) in Gongju, which predates the Tomb of King Muryeong. Fig. 3. Silver belt-tip ornaments from Songsan-ri Tomb No. 4 Fig. 4. Gold belt from Geumgwanchong Tomb These ornaments consist of a rectangular silver plaque with openwork fronds forming the shape of honeysuckle. At the center of the lower edge, there is a ring with a heart-shaped pendant hanging from it. In the center, the rectangular plaque has a simplified openwork three-leaf honeysuckle with a two-leaf design on either side. The design is vertically symmetrical and, apparently, was made by cutting out the design from a silver plate folded in half, which was then spread open, or by drawing the complete design onto the silver plate and cutting it out. Judging by the appearance and techniques, these ornamental plaques may be the end ornaments from a typical Silla three-leaf openwork belt; they are particularly similar to those on the belt excavated from Geumgwanchong in Gyeongju. Both exhibit the same design and techniques, and evidently, they were made in Silla. The question is, why was a Silla belt buried in the tomb of a Baekje king? Though it was possibly imported through trade, Baekje had its own system of official uniforms around that time, including the Baekje-style belts. The king could not have worn a belt from another nation while conducting the morning court assembly. Hence, it is necessary to look at the usage and owner of the belt from a slightly different perspective. That is, it may be deduced that the owner of the belt was a person from Silla. Regarding the owner of the belt, it is necessary to focus on the historical materials for the state wedding between Baekje and Silla in 493 CE. Related content found in both the Silla and Baekje sections of the Samguk sagi (三國史記, History of the Three Kingdoms) states that the wedding took place when King Dongseong of Baekje made a nuptial request to King Soji (炤知王, r. 479–500) of Silla, and that the woman who came from Silla to be married was the daughter of Biji,2 an official of the first rank (伊伐飡, K. ibeolchan) or second rank (伊飡, K. ichan). Considering Silla’s society at the time, Biji may have been a member of the royal family, and his daughter may have worn Silla-style attire to maintain her identity even after the marriage brought her to Baekje. Baekje Elements in Artifacts from Silla Tombs From the fifth century CE, a series of very large tumuli were constructed in the center of Gyeongju, and a much larger number of foreign artifacts were excavated from Silla’s historical sites dating after that time. The foreign artifacts include not only items from neighboring states but also goods from the faraway western regions. They reflect the superiority of the Silla royal family, who monopolized foreign trade and controlled the provinces, as well as the rapid change in Silla’s foreign relations. However, unlike Baekje tombs, the Silla tombs yielded very few Chinese items, but rather many items either made in Goguryeo or in Goguryeo style. Among the artifacts excavated from the Silla tombs, the only items that can be considered objects from Baekje are the gilded metal shoes (飾履, K. singni) (Figs. 5-1 and 5-2) found in Singnichong (Tomb of the Shoes). The gilded metal shoes excavated from tombs of the Three Kingdoms period are items that show an aspect of the funerary customs of the time. Excessively large, structurally weak, and lavishly decorated, they cannot be considered shoes for everyday wear, which is why many regard them as ritual funerary items. The shoes excavated from Singnichong in Gyeongju are the most finely made and sumptuous pair of gilded metal shoes of the Three Kingdoms period. The shoes are composed of three thin layers of sheet copper covered with a thick layer of gold. The soles are edged with a bead design and a flame pattern band. Along the edge of the pattern band and at regular intervals inside the tortoiseshell design on the sole, there are a total of eleven lotus flowers, each with eight petals. The tortoiseshell sections are alternately filled with animal faces and twin-bird designs. These designs are symmetrically arranged and include figures with the face of a human and the body of a bird, ordinary birds, and the mythical kylin. The sides are decorated in a similar way to the soles, with a difference only in the designs inside the tortoiseshell sections, which include figures with the head of an animal and the body of a bird, ordinary birds, and the mythical kylin. Scholars are divided as to where the shoes were made. Some argue that they show the influence of Southern Qi, the second of the Southern Dynasties of China, while others believe they were made in Silla. Based on the techniques used to make them, they have the features of Baekje ritual implements. Similar Baekje gilded metal shoes were discovered in Stone Chamber No. 4 of Bongdeok-ri Tomb No. 1 in Gochang (Figs. 5-3 and 5-4); Stone Chamber No. 1 of Jeongchon Tomb in Naju; and the Tomb of King Muryeong. The main difference is that the metal plates used for the sides and bottom of the Singnichong shoes were cast in a mold, while the other gilded metal shoes were made from openwork plates. Figs. 5. Gilded metal shoes 1) from Singnichong Tomb and 2) their detail; 3) from Bongdeok-ri Tomb No. 1 in Gochang and 4) their detail Shoes aside, some objects cannot be seen as products of Baekje but were possibly introduced to Silla via Baekje. These include bronze mirrors, bronze clothes irons, and black-glazed, dish-mouthed jars excavated from the southern and northern mounds of Hwangnam Daechong (Grand Tomb of Hwangnam-dong) and Singnichong. Though the possibility that the bronze mirrors and irons were implements to ward off evil cannot be ruled out, there are few precedents on the Korean peninsula, so for the time being, they can be seen as Chinese-style products. Baekje–Gaya Exchange Baekje and Gaya maintained close relations for many years. Conflict arose in the early part of Baekje’s Ungjin period when Dae Gaya forces advanced westward, but relations were apparently restored after the reign of King Muryeong. The exchange of people and goods between Baekje and Gaya would have been signiflcant in such circumstances. Nevertheless, almost no Gaya objects have been excavated from Baekje sites. The reason may lie in the cultural time gap between the two nations. In contrast, Gaya tombs have occasionally yielded items not only from Baekje but also other neighboring nations, including Silla, China’s Southern Dynasties, and Japan. Finished goods from Baekje were introduced to Gaya as well as elements such as design or techniques. Few excavations have been carried out on the large tumuli in Goryeong, the central part of Gaya. Indeed, as the tombs were robbed several times before any excavations could be conducted, the discovery of Baekje objects has been rare. However, in the tombs of the rulers of Dae Gaya, such as the Okjeon tomb cluster in Hapcheon, items made in Baekje or reflecting Baekje style have sporadically been excavated. Accessories Among the items discovered in the Tomb of King Muryeong, the gold earrings (Fig. 6-1) worn by King Muryeong’s Queen Consort not only have all the Baekje-style features but are the most finely made pair of Baekje earrings. They represent the consolidation of Baekje’s metalworking capabilities that had been developing since the Hanseong period. Earrings similar to these were also found in a Gaya tomb. Figs. 6-1 through 6-3. Earrings of the Queen Consort and their details The distinguishing features of the two pairs of earrings excavated from the remains of King Muryeong’s Queen Consort are the middle ornament and end pendant. e middle ornament is composed of two dark green glass beads with a domed cap. e end pendant has a four-winged shape, composed of four heart- shaped pieces of gold plate vertically folded (forming an inverted V-shaped section) and joined together at the folds in a cross form. Protruding from the tip of the pendant is a longish piece of gold wire. is wire provides the framework for the attachment of the gold granules. e ring connecting the middle ornament is also made of a gold wire, which is wound twice around the ring above and then once crosswise. is type of connecting ring is one of the distinguishing features of Baekje earrings from the Hanseong period onwards. This pair of earrings also has features from the Ungjin period that differ from the Hanseong period features: the glass bead decorated with a domed cap made of small rings joined together and the four-winged end pendant. These earrings were buried in the tomb in 529 CE and serve as a standard for dating earrings of the same type. Other earrings that also have a domed cap over a glass bead have been found in Songsan-ri Tomb No. 6 in Gongju and the Kamo-Inariyama Tomb in Shiga Prefecture, Japan. The earrings found in Okjeon Tomb No. M11 (Fig. 6-4) have a domed cap over both the top and bottom of the glass bead, a decoration considered similar to the middle ornament on the earrings of King Muryeong’s Queen Consort. Aside from the middle ornament, the connecting ring and the end pendant were also made with the same techniques seen in earrings from the Baekje Ungjin period and hence were, presumably, made in Baekje. Fig. 6-4. Earring from Okjeon Tomb No. M11 The silver belt excavated from Okjeon Tomb No. M11 and another found in Gyeongsan-ri Tomb No. 2 in Uiryeong are similar to the gold belt found in the Tomb of King Muryeong. Considering that belts were not actively made in Gaya and, therefore, no particular Gaya style of belts ever developed, it is possible to conclude that both silver belts were made in Baekje. Even before the time the Tomb of King Muryeong was built, Baekje accessories had been transmitted to Gaya. Generally, the number increased from around the mid-fifth century CE, and the Gaya style was created, showing no large time gap with Baekje. Among the typical accessories found in the tombs, the only items in which the Gaya style manifests are the gold earrings. The number of crowns, belts, textiles, and gilded metal shoes is small, and while the Gaya style can be seen in the crowns, it is not uniform. Among Gaya accessories of the fifth century CE, those made in Baekje or which are in the Baekje style will be discussed below. The gilt-bronze cap-type crown excavated from Okjeon Tomb No. 23 in Hapcheon (Fig. 7-7) is very similar to the Baekje gilt-bronze crowns from the Hanseong period. Attached on the left and right sides of the body of the peaked crown is a feather-shaped ornament with a trefoil, openwork design. A pipe is attached at the top, but it does not have a bowl-shaped finial ornament. The crown most similar to this one is the gilt-bronze crown excavated from the wooden coffin of Yo-ri Tomb No. 1 in Hwaseong (Fig. 7-1). Like the crown from Okjeon Tomb No. 23, it is a cap-type crown with the exterior in a peaked shape. The sides are decorated with a regular, openwork pattern based on a trefoil design. The Yo-ri crown and the Gildu-ri gilt-bronze crown (Fig. 7-6) are early examples of items made in the Baekje style, and in terms of absolute chronology, they have been dated to the first half of the fifth century CE. Figs. 7. Baekje-style gilt-bronze crowns from 1) Yo-ri Tomb No. 1, 2) Bujang-ri Tomb No. 5, 3) Yongwon-ri Tomb No. 9, 4) Suchon-ri Tomb Nos. II-1 and II-4, 5) Ipjeom-ri Tomb No. 86-1, 6) Andong Tomb in Gildu-ri, 7) Okjeon Tomb No. 23, and 8) Funayama Kofun Compared to the metal crowns excavated from the Jisan-dong tomb cluster in Goryeong, the Okjeon crown is of a different type; the delicacy of the techniques used indicates that it is probably a product of Baekje. As an aside, Baekje style earrings have also been discovered in Okjeon Tomb No. 23. The middle ornament on these earrings is disc-shaped with small globules hanging from the end of a long chain, similar to Baekje earrings from the Hanseong period (Figs. 8). There are Hanseong Baekje precedents of a disc-shaped middle ornament, such as the earrings excavated from the stone coffin of Yongwon-ri Tomb No. 9 in Cheonan and Bujang-ri Tomb No. 6-6 in Seosan, which suggests that the Okjeon Tomb No. 23 earrings were influenced by Baekje. Figs. 8. Gold earrings from Sinbong-dong Tomb in Cheongju (top) and Okjeon Tomb No. 23 in Hapcheon (bottom) The main hoops of all Dae Gaya earrings are the thin type, and—as yet—no thick-type ones have been found. This is a common point in Baekje earrings. Many Baekje elements are found in early Gaya earrings, and the absence of thick-hoop earrings from that time can be understood in this context. However, as in the case of earrings discovered in Okjeon Tomb No. M4 and No. M6, earrings where the main hoop is a little bit thicker and made hollow in the middle in the same way as thick-hoop earrings, appear in the first half of the sixth century CE. The major characteristic of Gaya earrings is that they have a globular middle ornament and chains. For the end pendant, heart-shaped ornaments were popular, and various other shapes such as cones, three wings, globules, and cape jasmine flowers are found. Few Gaya earrings from the fifth century CE are finished products of Baekje; most of them are in the Gaya style, created by assimilating the characteristics of Baekje earrings. Lastly, fragments of Baekje-style gilded metal shoes were discovered in Yugok-ri and Durak-ri Tomb No. 32 in Namwon. The sides and soles are decorated with a repoussé diamond design, similar to artifacts excavated from Ipjeom-ri Tomb No. 86-1 in Iksan and Sinchon-ri Tomb No. 9 in Naju. The shoes were seemingly transmitted to Gaya from Baekje. The pottery excavated with the shoe fragments is Dae Gaya-style earthenware made in the local area. Ornamental Swords Ornamental swords of Baekje were first made during the Hanseong period, and as evidenced by the sword of King Muryeong, the highest quality swords were made around the latter half of the Ungjin period. These ornamental swords were also transmitted to Gaya since Baekje maintained close political relations with them. Actual swords were transmitted as well as the technology, design, and techniques. An item that can be directly compared to the ornamental sword of King Muryeong is the sword from Jisan-dong Tomb (formerly) No. 39 in Goryeong (Fig. 9). The ring pommel on the sword was made of cast iron and may be hollow inside. It was decorated using the repoussé technique, and there is a rounded recess at all the nodes formed by the dividing lines of the design. The sections inside the lines feature a design of circles and flames. Inside the ring sits a metal phoenix with red wings and neck, which was made separately then gilded with white gold and attached afterwards. The horns at the top of the head were also made separately and attached. The metal fitting connecting the pommel and the hilt was made using the same techniques as the pommel. That is, after executing a repoussé design on the metal plate, bronze was embedded in the nodes of the design, and the whole piece was then covered with gold plating. Engraved inside the sections of the tortoiseshell design are phoenixes with wings spread wide. The crosshatch design on the handle is openwork on a silver plate, in contrast to the metal sheath attachment with an X design that was welded onto the scabbard of the sword discovered in the Tomb of King Muryeong. Fig. 9. Sword with dragon and phoenix decorated ring pommel from Jisan-dong Tomb (formerly) No. 39 The techniques used to make the sword differ from those used on the swords discovered in the stone coffin of Yongwon-ri Tomb No. 1 in Cheonan and the ornamental swords of Baekje, including King Muryeong’s sword with ring pommel. In the case of Baekje swords, the ring pommel and figure inside the ring are cast together as one piece. Therefore, it can be presumed that the sword from Jisan-dong Tomb (formerly) No. 39 in Goryeong is a product of Gaya rather than Baekje. There are some fifth-century CE ornamental swords of Gaya that may have been made in Baekje. The most likely items are explained below. First, there is the phoenix-decorated sword from Jisan-dong Tomb No. 32, NE-1. The ring pommel features a silver inlaid grass design. Similar examples have been excavated from the Baekje tombs, namely Hwaseong-ri Section A, Tomb No. 1 in Cheonan, and Suchon-ri Tomb No. II-7 in Gongju. Inside the ring is the head of a phoenix with three protruding horns. It seems the inlay technique of the early emergence period was as sophisticated and high-level as the granulation technique. Moreover, based on materials known so far and considering the existence of many inlaid items from Baekje’s Hanseong period, it is possible that the sword mentioned above was either made in Baekje or with the help of a Baekje artisan. The second example is the sword from Okjeon Tomb No. 35 in Hapcheon (Figs. 10, right). It is one of the early Dae Gaya swords with dragon and phoenix decorated ring pommel. Particularly notable in this case is the execution of the design. The basic raised design was made with cast iron, then the raised parts were inlaid with a silver wire for emphasis, and the lowered background parts were covered with gold leaf. Swords with these characteristics have also been excavated from the Baekje tombs. The typical form is embodied in the sword from Suchon-ri Tomb No. II-1 in Gongju (Figs. 10, left). After casting the dragon design on the ring pommel and emphasizing it with silver wire inlay, the lower background was covered with gold leaf. The use of the same techniques is evident on the sword discovered in the stone coffin from Yongwon-ri Tomb No. 12 in Cheonan. The twin dragons on the ring pommel and the dragon head or phoenix head inside the ring are decorated with precious metals using techniques such as silver inlay and gold leaf. Figs. 10. Swords from Suchon-ri Tomb No. II-1 (left) and from Okjeon Tomb No. 35 (right) When examined in terms of production skill, the sword from Okjeon Tomb No. 35 in Hapcheon was made with complex techniques, though not of the same level as the sword from Suchon-ri Tomb II-1 and is therefore unlikely to have been made by a Gaya artisan on his own. It can be presumed that the sword was made in Baekje or with techniques directly transmitted by Baekje. The third example is the sword from Okjeon Tomb No. M3. Among the four swords with dragon and phoenix decorated ring pommel excavated from the same tomb, one of them (Fig. 11) stands out for its clear difference in techniques. The part below the pommel is overlaid with a silver plate with an openwork dragon design and the carved out background parts are covered with gold leaf. Based on the techniques used to execute the design and color contrast, and to make the handle, the sword can be said to have similar characteristics to the Baekje swords excavated from the stone chamber of Yongwon-ri Tomb No. 1 in Cheonan, Suchon-ri Tomb No. II-1 in Gongju, and Stone Chamber No. 4 of Bongdeok-ri Tomb No. 1 in Gochang. Therefore, this sword from Okjeon Tomb No. M3 may have been brought into Gaya directly from Baekje. Fig. 11. Sword with dragon decorated ring pommel from Okjeon Tomb No. M3 The fourth example is the silver sword from Okjeon Tomb No. 28. The ring pommel is silver plated, and the metal fitting on the front of the scabbard is made of a silver plate decorated with a repoussé wave design. Similar examples are the swords from Suchon-ri Tomb No. II-1 in Gongju and Mochon-ri Tomb No. II-5 in Nonsan. As discussed above, among the ornamental swords excavated from Gaya tombs there are a few that were made in Baekje. Many more of them, however, exhibit a style that was developed in Gaya. While finished swords from Baekje were introduced to Gaya in the emergent period, it is likely that a definitive Gaya style emerged soon afterwards. Metal Vessels It seems that metal vessels were not so commonly used in Gaya as they were in Baekje and Silla. The only Gaya metal vessels that have been discovered are: the copper cauldrons from the major Geumgwan Gaya tomb clusters in Daeseong-dong and Yangdong-ri in Gimhae, a number of bronze bowls and other metal dishes from the Okjeon tomb cluster in Hapcheon and the Gyeongsan-ri tomb cluster in Uiryeong, and bronze mounted cups from Songhak-dong Tomb No. 1-C at the So Gaya site in Goseong. The Geumgwan Gaya relics would have been made in the Manchurian region and introduced directly from there. The first items to be discussed are the bronze vessels excavated from Okjeon Tomb No. M3 (Fig. 12-4), Jisan-dong Tomb No. 44 (Fig. 12-3), and Gyeongsan-ri Tomb No. 2 (Fig. 12-5). The bronze bowl from Okjeon Tomb No. M3 has eleven lines running horizontally around the body and a thick, pronounced rim that slants inwards. The bowls from Jisan-dong Tomb No. 44 have a similar rim. One has no lines while the other is engraved with more than six horizontal lines around the body. The basic form of the bowls was made using a casting technique. Each bowl was then fixed in place on a lathe, the walls of the bowl were smoothed down, and the lines were carved using rotary power. These bowls are notable for their similarity to the bronze bowl found in the Tomb of King Muryeong of Baekje (Fig. 12-1) that also has an inwardly protruding rim and lines running around the body just like the Gaya bowls. Figs. 12. Bronze vessels excavated from the tombs of Gaya and Baekje: 1) the Tomb of King Muryeong, 2) Okbuk-ri in Seocheon, 3) Jisan-dong Tomb No. 44 in Goryeong, 4) Okjeon Tomb No. M3 in Hapcheon, 5) Gyeongsan-ri Tomb No. 2 in Uiryeong The second item is the small, bronze mounted cup from Songhak-dong Tomb No. 1-C in Goseong. As Tomb No. 1-C is one of the stone chambers of Songhak-dong Tomb No. 1 that was constructed at a comparatively later date, the artifacts inside it were excavated intact. Pottery from So Gaya made up the greatest proportion of the items, and some earthenware vessels from Dae Gaya were also found. Among the metal objects discovered, the bell-shaped, bridle-strap pendant is of the Silla type, while the ornamental sword and the small daggers are of the Baekje or Dae Gaya type. The bronze mounted cup is a small vessel, 6.3 centimeters high with a mouth diameter of 10.6 centimeters. It is the only one of its kind among artifacts from the Three Kingdoms period, which makes it diffcult to conclude exactly where it was made. However, in terms of techniques used and the treatment of the mouth, it is similar to the bronze vessels of Baekje. Few Silla metal vessels with thin walls and shaped with rapid rotary power have been found. The mounted cup, therefore, can be presumed to be a product of Baekje. As seen above, a large number of objects made in Baekje or of the Baekje type have been excavated from Gaya historical sites. Of course, there are objects from various other places as well, including Silla, China, the northern regions, and Japan, but there are many metal craft artifacts that can be connected with Baekje. This would be the result of an exchange between Baekje and Gaya, who maintained close relations from the fourth century CE, as mentioned previously. As recorded on the Stele of Gwanggaeto the Great, international affairs in the late fourth century CE saw serious conflicts between Goguryeo–Silla and Baekje–Gaya and Wa (Japan). In this situation, Baekje and Gaya formed a blood alliance, which means many Baekje goods would have been introduced to Gaya. However, Goguryeo’s attack on the southern part of the peninsula in 400 CE dealt a severe blow to the Baekje, Gaya, and Japanese forces, and it was a long time before the situation was restored. When Silla drove out the Goguryeo soldiers and formed an alliance with Baekje, it can be presumed that the culture of both Silla and Baekje was naturally introduced to Gaya. Gaya’s status in international society was officially recognized when the king was conferred a title by the Southern Qi Dynasty of China.3 Around that time, Baekje had lost the Hangang River basin to the southward advance of Goguryeo and moved Baekje’s capital to Ungjin. It was a difficult time when national welfare was of paramount concern. Evidence from written records and archaeological materials indicate that Gaya took advantage of this opportunity to expand to the upper reaches of the Geumgang River and the area west of the Seomjingang River. They also appear to have strengthened their network with Qi forces in the Yeongsangang River basin. The expansion of Gaya was only temporary, however. Through the reigns of King Dongseong and King Muryeong, Baekje regained its original strength, recovered lost territory, and apparently also intended to strengthen its influence on Gaya. The Baekje-made items excavated in the Jisan-dong tomb cluster in Goryeong, the Okjeon tomb cluster in Hapcheon, the Gyeongsan-ri tomb cluster in Uiryeong, and the Songhak-dong tomb cluster in Goseong are materials that clearly reflect the situation at the time. Conclusion This article examines exchange among the kingdoms in the central and southern parts of the Korean peninsula based on the artifacts excavated from the Tomb of King Muryeong. The major points can be summed up as follows. From the fifth century CE, Baekje made concerted efforts to build foreign relations with neighboring states to protect itself from the threat posed by Goguryeo. The situation grew especially serious following the relocation of the Baekje capital to Ungjin. This is evidenced not only by historical records but also by excavated artifacts. Baekje strived to maintain closer relations, particularly with Silla and Gaya, with which it shared borders. However, such relations did not last, and alliances shuffled around according to changes in the international situation. The circumstances at the time are partially reflected in objects excavated from archaeological sites. Baekje and Silla maintained an alliance for some 120 years from the first half of the fifth century CE, but objects from each other’s country have rarely been excavated from their respective territories. The silver belt links excavated from Songsan-ri Tomb No. 1 in Gongju are practically the only Silla objects that were transmitted to Baekje, and the only Baekje objects introduced to Silla were the gilded metal shoes discovered in Singnichong in Gyeongju. Most of the Chinese products of the Southern Dynasties that were discovered in other royal tombs of Gyeongju were likely transmitted to Silla via Baekje. Up until that time, Silla had not been able to send envoys to China on its own. The flow of material culture between Baekje and Gaya is relatively clear. Rather than a bilateral exchange between the two countries, Baekje culture was transmitted to Gaya unilaterally. The Baekje-type artifacts excavated from Gaya tombs indicate diverse contexts as they include items made in Baekje, items made in Gaya under the guidance of an artisan from Baekje, and items made by Gaya artisans copying Baekje techniques.
January 2019, vol.13, pp.67-81 DOI : https://doi.org/10.23158/jkaa.2019.v13_05
Metalworking conventionally refers to the process of manipulating various kinds of metal to create finished products. It spans a wide range of materials including gold, silver, copper, tin, and iron, either alone or in blends, such as alloys. Metalworking in Korea traces back to the Bronze Age, but only a small number of metals were used at that time and the items produced were limited to bronze ritual objects. It was during the Three Kingdoms Period (57 BCE–668 CE) that metalworking culture entered its prime in Korea, but it was particularly evident in the kingdom of Silla (57 BCE–935CE) (Lee Nan Young 1992). Silla was founded in and around what is today the city of Gyeongju and maintained this capital for its entire history. A wide range of materials and goods must have been concentrated in Gyeongju, not only while Silla’s territorial boundaries were limited to its capital region, but even after it expanded its influence across what is now Gyeongsang-do Province and parts of Gangwon-do Province. It seems that Silla’s production of a diverse variety of metalwork in a unique style was made possible by this collection of abundant resources. Characteristic features become notable in relics from the fifth century onwards. In other words, metalwork with a distinctive “Silla-style” began to be produced in this period (Lee Hansang 2004). A turning point in Silla metalworking culture arrived with its unification of the Korean Peninsula and the establishment of Unified Silla (668–935 CE) in 668. Among the metal objects produced after unification, accessories and everyday goods came to strongly reflect styles stemming from the Tang Dynasty (618–907 CE) in China, as was common across East Asia. Nevertheless, there are sarira reliquaries and Buddhist bells from the era that still reflect a clear Silla provenance (Ju Gyeongmi 2005; Choi Eung Chon 2010). This paper aims to examine the metalwork of Silla, in particular the items discovered in Gyeongju, by exploring the history of excavation and research, the development of metalworking technology, and the emergence of a distinctive Silla style. It will further describe the background, acceptance, and significance of the foreign influences observed in Silla metalwork. Excavation and Research Excavation of Metalwork The rich and sumptuous metalworking culture of the kingdom of Silla was first revealed with the excavation of Geumgwanchong Tomb (金冠塚) in 1921. A gold crown and other golden ornaments were accidentally uncovered in the area of Noseo-ri in Gyeongju. Gold crowns were subsequently discovered at excavations carried out on the tombs Geumnyeongchong (金鈴塚) and Seobongchong (瑞鳳塚) in 1924 and 1926, respectively. This confirmed the remarkable goldsmithing tradition that had existed in Silla. Excavations of royal tombs from the Silla period continued after Korea recovered its national sovereignty in 1945. In 1946, the National Museum of Korea conducted an excavation of an abandoned tomb in the Noseo-ri tomb cluster and uncovered a bronze lidded bowl with an inscription of the name of the nineteenth king of Goguryeo, King Gwanggaeto the Great (廣開土大王, 373–413, r. 391–413), along with the Chinese characters ‘壺杅’ (K. ho-u), meaning bowls (Fig. 1, left). This was a remarkable find indicating that metalworking culture from Goguryeo was being transferred to Silla at the time. Fig. 1. Bronze Lidded Bowl with Inscription of “Ho-u” (left) and Bronze Bottle (right) from Houchong Tomb. Bronze. H. 19.4 cm (left), 16.3 cm (right). National Museum of Korea In 1959, the National Museum discovered reliquaries while dismantling the West Pagoda at the Gameunsa Temple Site (感恩寺址) for restoration (Fig. 2, left). Although they were in poor condition when found, these sarira reliquaries featured elegant embellishments and exquisite representations of musicians and the Four Heavenly Kings protecting the Dharma, demonstrating Silla’s exceptional advancement in metalworking by the late seventh century. Fig. 2. Sarira Reliquaries from the West Pagoda (left) and East Pagoda (right) at the Gameunsa Temple Site. 682. Gilt-bronze. H. 28.0 cm (left), 31.0 cm (right). National Museum of Korea and Gyeongju National Museum Extensive excavations began to be carried out in Gyeongju in the 1970s and they revealed great quantities of Silla metalwork. The excavation of the tumulus of King Muryeong (武寧王, 462–523, r. 501–523) of Baekje in 1971 provided momentum to the pursuit of investigations of major historic sites in Gyeongju as well. A gold crown was unearthed in the excavation of Cheonmachong Tomb (天馬塚) in 1973 and another from the North Mound of Hwangnamdaechong Tomb (皇南大塚) in 1974. In 1975, a further remarkable excavation was conducted that revealed exquisite metal objects. A large amount of high-quality metalwork in good condition dating back to the Unified Silla period was uncovered from Wolji Pond (月池) within the Wolseong Palace (月城) site. In 1966, sarira reliquaries were discovered within the Three-story Stone Pagoda of Bulguksa Temple (佛國寺), and more sarira reliquaries were found from the East Pagoda at the Gameunsa Temple site (Fig. 2, right) and the Five-story Stone Pagoda in Nawon-ri in 1996. With the turn of the new millennium, fewer dramatic discoveries of metalwork took place in the Gyeongju area, largely due to the decreased number of excavations. Nevertheless, bronze relics including bowls, donggot (topknot pins), ladles, and small ornamental objects continued to be uncovered from wells within the premises of palaces and temples. Most of these wells had been deliberately abandoned, and these relics had mainly been buried during the decline of Silla. Research Issues The most notable metalwork among the items excavated at historic sites in Gyeongju are the gold accessories unearthed from ancient tombs. In the early phases, these gold items were studied and used to date ancient Silla tombs. More recently, they have been subjects for examination of metalwork production methods. Through the findings of this research, characteristics of metalwork unique to Silla have been identified, as well as the exchanges between the three kingdoms (Lee Song-Ran 2004; Lee Hansang 2004; Ham Soon Seop 2014). Weapons and horse tack have been found that were decorated using the same metalworking techniques applied to jewelry. Scholars have been focusing on investigating the appearance and ownership of ornamental Silla swords rather than their production techniques. The production of equestrian gear involves not only metalworking, but leather crafting and woodworking skills as well. The horse gear found in Gyeongju include pommels, cantles, stirrups, and harness fittings. The studies conducted to date have been primarily focused on their form and the patterns in their designs. Fig. 3. Adornments of Silla (1, 2) and Gaya (3, 4): (1) From North Mound of Hwangnamdaechong Tomb. Gold and jade. H. 27.3 cm. National Museum of Korea (2) From Hwango-ri Tomb No. 52. Gold. L. 8.8 cm. National Museum of Korea (3) From Jisan-dong Tomb No. 32. Gilt-bronze. H. 19.6 cm. Gyeongju National Museum (4) From Jisan-dong Tomb No. 45. Gold and gilt-bronze. L. 6.54 cm. Gyeongju National Museum Investigations have been carried out on the metal vessels discovered from wooden chamber tombs with a stone mound, including Hwangnamdaechong and Cheonmachong. In particular, bronze vessels have been found that parallel the forms of those excavated from tombs in Goguryeo, such as tripod cauldrons, and scholars have subsequently scrutinized the transference of Goguryeo culture into Silla. In regards to metalwork in the Unified Silla period, thorough studies have been carried out on the findings from Wolji Pond (Lee Nan Young 2000). Fig. 4. Harness Fittings from South Mound of Hwangnamdaechong Tomb. 5th century. Gilt-bronze. H. 13.0 cm (top on right). Gyeongju National Museum The finest examples of Unified Silla metalwork are considered to be sarira reliquaries and the Sacred Bell of Great King Seongdeok. Sarira reliquaries feature an assemblage of metal, glass, and stone containers and objects. Studies on sarira reliquaries have hitherto been conducted mainly on their composition, location of enshrinement, and varieties of votive goods (Joo Kyeong-mi 2014), as well as their production method. For the Sacred Bell of Great King Seongdeok, there have been studies on its motifs and stylistic characteristics as well as a comparative analysis with bells from neighboring countries (Choi Eung Chon 1997). Some of the metalwork excavated in Gyeongju can be identified as imported. These relics were brought into Silla via long-distance trade or diplomatic missions, and most of them are concentrated in the royal tombs within the capital. Foreign metal artifacts include items from Goguryeo and the Southern Dynasties (420–589 CE) of China, and Central Asia as well. Studies aimed at scrutinizing Silla’s exchanges with other countries by examining these foreign goods have produced significant results. Development of Metalworking Techniques Master Artisans and Workshops The metalwork of Silla was created by professional artisans (Lee Younghee 2004). The production of metalwork in ancient societies necessitated the sourcing of required materials, such as gold and silver. In the case of gold, it was the most esteemed resource among the ruling classes around the region, including China. Objects created with such a precious material premise the existence of highly skilled artisans and workshops. Since maximum effect should be achieved with the least amount of metal possible, trial-and-error was unacceptable in production. Therefore, manufacturing could only be practiced directly by artisans demonstrating the finest skills. It is likely that the metalworking artisans of the time resided within a designated area as they completed the works assigned to them. The number of metalcraft workshops was presumably not as high as those producing ceramics or ironware, and it is believed a wide variety of design books were housed in these workshops. Given that metalcrafts from different areas respectively bear distinct designs and develop unique styles, it is possible that metalcraft decorated with dragons (Fig. 5) and mythical birds known as fenghung (鳳凰, K. bonghwang) were created by referring to books obtained through trade with Wei, Jin, and the Southern and Northern Dynasties (420–589 CE) in China, as well as within the three kingdoms of Baekje, Silla, and Goguryeo. Fig. 5. Comparison of Dragon Designs of Baekje (1), Silla (3, 4, 7), and Wa (2, 5, 6): (1) Naseong-ri Tomb No. 4. (2) Shichikan Tomb (七觀古墳). (3) Imdang Tomb No. 7B. (4) Chodang-dong Tomb No. A-1. (5) Gojō Nekozuka Tomb (五條猫塚古墳). (6) Tsukino-oka Tomb (月岡古墳). (7) South Mound of Hwangnamdaechong Tomb Nevertheless, acquiring the technical know-how for metal crafting is different from imitating design patterns, and this could only be developed through direct contact with and transmission among artisans. The various foreign elements and influences reflected in the metalcrafts of Silla are likely to have been introduced through human interchanges. In fact, frequent exchanges took place between artisans in ancient East Asia, including Silla. The dissemination of metal crafting techniques, some of the most advanced technical skills of the era, were likely made possible via these interactions. There are no means today through which to determine what these workshops would have been like. Further, only a few traces related to the production of metal are found around the city of Gyeongju (Cha Soon-Chul 2005). In the Historic Site in Dongcheon-dong, the site of a bronze ware workshop was uncovered together with roads and large-scale building sites. The site was discovered within the central two units of a three-unit building compound. Inside the workshop was found a three-meter rectangular kiln, and the large number of red-brown molds found inside the kiln suggest that it was used to produce frameworks for molds. In addition, four bronze melting furnaces and one smelting furnace were discovered at the site. Metalworking Techniques The emergence of a Silla-style metalcraft culture coincided with the establishment and development of Silla as an ancient state. This is precisely the period during which gold adornments were being deposited inside large wooden chamber tombs with a stone mound located in Gyeongju. However, these large-scale tombs began to disappear from the mid-sixth century onwards and the number of metal items discovered at historical sites witnessed a drastic decrease as well. In any case, it seems that metalworking culture developed steadily during the Silla period. This is evidenced by the finest examples of Buddhist craftwork and everyday items used in the royal court unearthed from historic sites dating back to the Unified Silla period. Presented below are some of the detailing techniques employed in Silla metalwork (Lee Nan Young 2010). Casting refers to the technique of melting metal at high temperatures and pouring the liquid metal into a mold to produce a desired form. Most of the bronze vessels uncovered from the wooden chamber tombs with a stone mound were created using this method. In particular, the Tripod Cauldron with Handle uncovered from Geumgwanchong Tomb (Fig. 6) is considered a masterpiece of this technique for both its elegant shape and refined decoration. Buddhist sculptures created around the time of Silla’s unification of the Three Kingdoms demonstrate that the level of precision in casting at the time was highly advanced. Among the cast metal objects from the Unified Silla period, the Sacred Bell of Great King Seongdeok is the largest extant example (Fig. 7, 17). The Chinese characters “鑄鍾大博士” (K. jujong daebaksa) are inscribed on it, literally meaning “chief master of casting Buddhist bells,” indicating the status of the artisan involved. Fig. 6. Example of Casting Technique: Tripod Cauldron with Handle from Geumgwanchong Tomb. L. 46.5 cm. Gyeongju National Museum (Right: Details of dragon design and lotus design) Fig. 7. Example of Casting Technique: Detail of Sacred Bell of Great King Seongdeok from Bongdeoksa Temple Site. 771 Forging involves shaping a metal object by beating or hammering it. Prior to the development of more ornamental metal crafting culture, production techniques for ironware were already flourishing in Silla. This suggests that the kingdom was prepared for decorative metalwork production in the sense that the required technical framework had already been established. Forging was the dominant production process for the gold accessories or gold and silver vessels unearthed from Silla’s wooden chamber tombs with stone mounds. However, the technique was generally used only partially in the metalwork of the Unified Silla period. When decorating a metal plaque, the background of the design or the design itself can be cut out to enhance its visibility. This technique is known as openwork. Conventionally, an underdrawing is sketched on the surface of a metal sheet and then a hammer and chisel are used to excise the desired decoration. This particular technique is visible on the gold conical cap (Fig. 8, above), belt, and the pair of pommel and cantle (Fig. 8, below) uncovered from the Cheonmachong Tomb from the Silla Kingdom period. From the later Unified Silla period, the nirmānabuddha, or metamorphosed Buddha, and mandorla of a Buddhist sculpture uncovered from Wolji Pond provide classic examples of this technique. One of the most exquisite applications of openwork is found on the cantle discovered from the South Mound of the Hwangnamdaechong Tomb. Its entire surface features an openwork design of dragons laid above the wings of jewel beetles, yielding an ornate iridescent decoration. This technique can also be observed in the gilt-bronze openwork ornament in a sun shape unearthed from Jinpa-ri Tomb No. 7 of Goguryeo. Fig. 8. Examples of Openwork Technique: Conical cap (above) from Cheonmachong Tomb. Gold. H. 19.0 cm. Gyeongju National Museum; Cantle (below) from South Mound of Hwangnamdaechong Tomb. Gilt-bronze. W. 52.4cm Precious metals such as gold and silver are beautiful unto themselves, but they can be even more stunning when juxtaposed with materials with contrasting tones, such as jade beads. Among the craftwork unearthed from wooden chamber tombs with stone mounds, the bracelets excavated from the North Mound of the Hwangnamdaechong Tomb nicely demonstrate jade inlaying, known as gamok (嵌玉) in Korean. However, there is a high possibility that these bracelets are foreign products. There is no other surviving example from the Silla Kingdom of the use of the jade incrustation technique, although a similar decorative method using liquid glass was prevalent at the time (Fig. 9-2). In addition, although it is not the classic form of this incrustation technique, there was another means to produce a similar effect by mounting a gold crown over a jade bead, as observed in the chains and pendants hanging from the gold crowns found under the North Mound of Hwangnamdaechong Tomb (Fig. 9-1) and Geumgwanchong Tomb. Jade beads in diverse colors were used to decorate craftwork in the post-unification period. A representative example is the nirmānabuddha discovered from Wolji Pond in Gyeongju (Fig. 9-3). The sarira reliquaries found in the three-story pagoda of Bulguksa Temple also feature jade beads in varied hues incrusted in the metalwork (Shin Suk 2016). Fig. 9. Examples of Color Contrasts Using Gold with Jade: (1) Jade ornamentation of crown excavated from the North Mound of Hwangnamdaechong Tomb. Gold and jade. Gyeongju National Museum (2) Chain and pendant ornamentation of crown excavated from Geumnyeongchong Tomb. Gold and glass (3) Nirmānabuddha discovered from Wolji Pond. Silver and garnet. L. 9.0 cm Filigree is a decorative technique that involves soldering gold beads or threads onto the surface of a metal object as a means of embellishment. The rings and small rattles excavated from the South Mound of Hwangnamdaechong Tomb feature elaborate filigree designs. The most notable relics demonstrating this technique is the pair of gold earrings discovered in the stone burial chamber of Bubuchong Tomb (夫婦塚) in Bomun-ri (Fig. 10). Filigree continued to be used both during and after the post-unification period, as can be observed in the sarira reliquaries discovered inside the East Pagoda at the Gameunsa Temple Site. Fig. 10. Example of Filigree Technique: Earrings discovered in the stone burial chamber of Bubuchong Tomb in Bomun-ri. 6th century. Gold. L. 8.7 cm. National Museum of Korea Inlay is used to render characters or patterns in the outer surface of metalwork by inserting pieces of different metals into a depression. Among the three kingdoms, an early form of inlay technique can be found in Baekje metalwork, and it is presumed that this method was introduced to Silla via Baekje. The sword unearthed from the Houchong Tomb (壺杅塚), and the pommel and cantle discovered in Gyerim-ro Tomb No. 14 feature inlay. In the post-unification period, the technique expanded beyond the creation of linear ornamentation to include broad and planar designs as well, as observed in the conical stirrups excavated from Pyeongsan. Gilding is a decorative technique in which gold or silver is applied to surfaces of iron or bronze. Amalgam cannot be affixed to iron surfaces, so gold or silver leaf is used instead. However, bronze objects can be coated with a mercury-based amalgam. Gilding can also be partially applied on gold and silver vessels, a technique which prevailed in China during and after the Tang dynasty, but this method was uncommon during the Unified Silla period. Among metalworking techniques, some are used for shaping metal vessels, such as casting and forging, while others are applied for rendering or emphasizing design motifs, such as openwork or chasing. A ring-punched design is a pattern achieved through the chasing technique that involves hammering the area surrounding a design with a tubular chisel to create a dense background of rings. This method was normally only applied to high-quality metalwork, such as the candle wick trimmer discovered from Wolji Pond and the sarira reliquaries discovered inside the East Pagoda at the Gameunsa Temple Site and the five-story stone pagoda in Nawon-ri (Fig. 11). Fig. 11. Example of Ring-punched Design: Sarira Reliquary (Outer Casket) from Five-story Stone Pagoda in Namwon-ri. 8th century. Gilt-bronze. H. 15.2 cm. National Museum of Korea Emergence of a Silla Style Gold Adornments The ancient kingdom of Silla developed a tradition of metal adornments that resulted in some of the greatest splendor found in East Asia. Due to the practice of burying large quantities of objects in tombs and the unique structure of wooden chamber tombs with stone mounds, a large number of these artifacts have survived. In Nihon shoki (日本書紀, The Chronicles of Japan), which was written early in the eighth century, Silla is described as a “country of dazzling gold, silver, and various colors” or the “country of gold and silver.” In his book Nuzhat al-mushtāq fīikhtirāq al-āfāq (قافالا قارتخا يف قاتشملا ةهزن باتك, The Excursion of the One Who Yearns to Penetrate the Horizons), the Arab geographer Muhammad ibn Muhammad Al-Idrisi noted that “Silla abounds in gold.” In the eyes of foreigners, Silla was a golden kingdom, and this image is clearly reflected in the extant metalwork relics of the time. Numerous burial goods were interred inside Silla royal tombs such as Hwangnamdaechong and Cheonmachong. In particular, gold adornments have been discovered surrounding the remains of the tombs’ occupants. The period in which large-scale tombs were constructed within the city of Gyeongju and great numbers of gold objects were interred inside them coincided with a time of rapid development for the kingdom of Silla. This is also when the Kim clan held the throne and adopted the title of Maripgan (麻立干, meaning “great chieftain”) for the ruler. It is presumed that the kingdom carried out exchanges at this time with the peoples to its north and was introduced to the gold culture of nomadic tribes such as the Xianbei (鮮卑). However, Silla developed a distinct and independent style. The peak of Silla’s creation of accessories in precious metals had already been reached by the time of the construction of the South Mound of Hwangnamdaechong Tomb. In this era, only a limited number of people were able to possess golden adornments. Around the time of the building of the North Mound of the tomb, a wider range of people could acquire gold accessories and a unique Silla style emerged in terms of design. Gold crowns replaced gilt-bronze versions and were placed on the heads of deceased kings or other royalty. Moreover, accessories increased in both number and variety and came to include bracelets, earrings, necklaces (Fig. 13) and gilt-bronze shoes. Their decoration grew more lavish as well. The most outstanding type of Silla ornament is the gold crown (Fig. 12). Gold crowns have been discovered only from royal tombs built during the Maripgan period (the latter half of the fourth to the beginning of the sixth century). Such restricted possession of gold crowns indicates that they served to represent the status and authority of the royalty of the time. The gold crown in Fig. 12 features five uprights shaped like branches and antlers. The form of the branch-like uprights and the number of comma-shaped jade pendants and golden spangles evolved over time, and the designs on the band and uprights became more complex and decorative. Fig. 12. Crown from North Mound of Hwangnamdaechong Tomb. 5th century. Gold. H. 27.3 cm. Gyeongju National Museum Fig. 13. (1) Necklace from South Mound of Hwangnamdaechong Tomb. Early 5th century. Gold. L. 66.7 cm. Gyeongju National Museum (2) Necklace from Noseo-dong No. 215 Tomb. 6th century. Gold and jade. L. 30.0 cm. National Museum of Korea One century after the introduction of goldsmithing to the kingdom of Silla, works of the finest quality were being produced as the understanding and mastery of the techniques involved reached their zenith. The earrings discovered in the stone chamber tomb Bubuchong Tomb in Bomun-ri exemplify the level of sophistication achieved at the time. However, having reached its peak, Silla’s golden adornment culture ceased to advance. This seems to be related to the dramatic changes that Silla experienced during the sixth century, including the state’s official recognition of Buddhism. Metal Vessels and Everyday Goods Gold and silver bowls, together with gold earrings and Roman glass bowls, were excavated from the late-fourth century Wolseong-ro No. ga-13 Tomb. These footless bowls were crafted by hammering sheets of gold and silver. Royal tombs dated to later than the Wolseong Tombs, including the North and South Mounds of Hwangnamdaechong, Geumgwanchong, Seobongchong, Geumnyeongchong, and Cheonmachong, have yielded large quantities of metal vessels. The assemblages of metal vessels unearthed from large-scale tombs, including the tripod cauldron (鼎, K. jeong), water bowl (洗, K. se), water basin (盤, K. ban), tripod cauldron with handle (鐎斗, K. chodu), flat iron (熨斗, K. uldu), lidded bowl (盒, K. hap), and bowl (盌, K. wan), are all presumed to be ritual vessels showing a Gorguryeo influence. Among the metal vessels that were discovered in the South Mound of Hwangnamdaechong Tomb, those regarded to be in a “Silla style” are the gold bowls, silver bowls, small and large silver lidded bowls, silver vessels with handles, silver ladles, and bronze lidded jars. Silla is the only state among the three kingdoms where extravagant vessels made of gold and silver have been found. More opulent gold and silver vessels were excavated from the North Mound than the South Mound of Hwangnamdaechong Tomb (Fig. 14). Among them, bowls were found inside a box of burial goods. The gold and silver vessels were produced in the same manner: a sheet of gold or silver was rolled outwards at one edge to create the mouth of the bowl, and its bottom was hammered flat from the inside so that it would appear like a low mound from the outside. Large numbers of metal vessels were also uncovered from Cheonmachong Tomb, a sixth-century royal tomb. Although the metal relics unearthed there were restricted in type and quantity compared to those found in Hwangnamdaechong Tomb, Cheonmachong is clearly among the ancient tombs of Silla that yielded the highest-quality discoveries. The metal vessels within are considered to be ritual vessels for service on ceremonial occasions, and a larger portion of them were imbued with Silla aesthetics. Fig. 14. Mounted Cup from North Mound of Hwangnamdaechong Tomb. 5th century. Gold. H. 9.2 cm. Gyeongju National Museum After the mid-sixth century, wooden chamber tombs were replaced by a new type, stone chamber tombs, and metal vessels disappeared from them. From this point on, metalwork is found only from the sites of palaces or in the capital city, and the most exquisite examples among them are the sarira reliquaries and votive goods in Buddhist temples. Excavations of the wooden chamber tombs with a stone mound from after this point no longer produce ritual vessels, but it is difficult to say whether these types of vessels were no longer being created or if simply none have yet been uncovered. Nevertheless, it is clear that Silla metalwork underwent a significant transformation, and the kingdom witnessed considerable changes after unification as it more fully absorbed the metalwork culture of Tang China. Discoveries from Wolji Pond, located within the Silla royal palace, include diverse goods designed for everyday use, including tableware (Fig. 15). Also recovered from the pond is a wide range of architectural elements, such as door knobs, handles, locks, and butt ends, as well as tools such as candlewick trimmers. In addition, objects that were produced in workshops in Gyeongju and found in Wolji pond, including jwapari gaban (佐波理加盤, nested brass bowls), scissors, and spoons, are held in the Shōsō-in Repository (正倉院) in Japan. Fig. 15. Lidded Bowl from Wolji Pond. H. 11.2 cm. Gyeongju National Museum Buddhist Crafts Scholars are still debating precisely when Buddhism was first introduced to the Silla kingdom, but it is clear that it was in 527, the fourteenth year of the reign of King Beopheung (法興王, r. 514–540), that it was officially adopted as the state religion. From that point until the kingdom faded from history, Buddhism exerted a strong influence over Silla society. Large temples were constructed in various locations around the capital city of Gyeongju, and metalcrafts displaying diverse metalworking techniques were produced as part of this process. Sarira reliquaries are considered the most important among Buddhist crafts. As containers enshrining the sacred remains of the Buddha, these reliquaries were created with the highest-quality materials available and using the most sophisticated skills and techniques. Many of the pagodas surviving at temple sites around Gyeongju have been either excavated or dismantled, but few of them have yielded intact metal sarira reliquaries dating to the period when they were erected. In some cases, the originals had been replaced with reliquaries and votive goods with a later production date, or additional offerings or reliquaries were added over time, as evidenced from the discoveries from the wooden pagoda of Hwangnyongsa Temple and the stone pagodas of both Bunhwangsa and Bulguksa Temples. Therefore, it is often difficult to conclude that all of the findings from a Silla-period pagoda are contemporaneous with the pagoda. The sarira reliquaries with known dates of enshrinement excavated from the Gameunsa and Hwangboksa temple sites are discussed briefly below. Gameunsa Temple was established around the year 682 by the order of King Sinmun (神文王, r. 681–692) to honor his father and predecessor King Munmu (文武王, r. 661–681). The sarira reliquaries discovered in the West Pagoda take a nested form with a gilt-bronze outer casket around a gilt-bronze reliquary, inside of which was placed a crystal bottle. The reliquary is in the shape of a wooden pavilion, and heavenly figures are set at the four corners of its railings. The outer casket is embellished with attached images of the Four Guardian Kings in dynamic postures. The sarira reliquaries discovered in the East Pagoda are similar to the one in the West Pagoda, but remain in better condition. This sarira reliquary reflects a distinct pavilion shape (Fig. 16). The sarira bottle, only 3.65 centimeters in height, is characterized by a top and base adorned with elaborate filigree decorations. The sarira reliquaries excavated from both pagodas show diverse metalworking techniques, including casting, forging, and openwork. The reliquaries were completed by assembling separately-produced individual parts using nails or soldering. Fig. 16. Sarira Reliquary from East Pagoda at Gameunsa Temple Site. 682. Gilt-bronze. H. 18.8 cm. Gyeongju National Museum In the case of the sarira reliquaries found inside the stone pagoda at the Hwangboksa Temple Site, they consist of a glass sarira bottle placed inside a lidded gold case that was again set inside a lidded silver case and finally a gilt-bronze outer casket. The lid of the outer casket bears an inscription that relates that the pagoda was established in 692, and deposits, including the sarira, Buddha statues, and Dharani sutra, were additionally enshrined in 706. The outer casket also features on its exterior surface engravings of ninety-nine small pagodas. Although the difference between the reliquaries from the temple sites of Hwangboksa and Gameunsa is not great in terms of date, they differ significantly in terms of form and composition. Temple bells are the largest Buddhist ritual objects, and possibly the most difficult to produce. The Bronze Bell of Sangwonsa Temple and the Sacred Bell of Great King Seongdeok (Fig. 17) are two surviving examples from the Unified Silla period that remain in Korea. These bells are considered to be archetypical of Korean Buddhist temple bells, embodying unique characteristics that differentiate them from their Chinese and Japanese counterparts. Fig. 17. Sacred Bell of Great King Seongdeok from Bongdeoksa Temple Site. 771. Bronze. H. 365.8 cm. Gyeongju National Museum The body of the bell resembles an upside-down jar with a swollen mid-body that tapers toward the upper and lower bodies. The top of the bell includes a dragon-shaped ornament that serves as a hook from which the bell could be hung. Behind the dragon is a tubular reverberating pipe, the most distinctive element of Korean Buddhist bells. The details of these bells varied over time, particularly their design elements such as heavenly maidens playing musical instruments (Choi Eung Chon 1997). International Exchange of Metalworking Culture China To understand the metalworking culture of Silla, it is essential to examine the exchanges between this kingdom and a string of Chinese dynasties. Even while still a statelet within a greater confederacy, Silla was importing Chinese metalwork such as mirrors from the Han Dynasty. Such imports continued through the period of constructing wooden chamber tombs with a stone mound. Bronze mirrors and flat irons that are deemed to have originated from the Southern Dynasties of China were excavated from the North and South Mounds of Hwangnamdaechong Tomb. It is unknown how and for what reasons these relics ended up in Silla. Nevertheless, considering that large quantities of Chinese items from the Wei, Jin, and Southern and Northern Dynasties were uncovered from contemporaneous sites in Baekje and that Silla and Baekje had forged an alliance in 433, the relics can be suggested to have reached Silla via Baekje. Silla and the Southern Dynasties formally established diplomatic relations in the early sixth century. Greater numbers of items imported from China have been discovered intact from Silla ruins dated to after the late sixth century. These include the Chang Ping Wu Zhu (常平五銖錢) coins from the Northern Qi Dynasty discovered at the Bunhwangsa Temple and Hwangnyongsa Temple Sites; Kai Yuan Tong Bao (開元通寶) coins from the Tang Dynasty excavated from Wolji Pond; and the Mirror with a TLV Pattern and Four Divine Creatures Design (四神鏡, Ch. sishenjing) uncovered from the lower part of the foundation stone of the wooden pagoda site at the Hwangnyongsa Temple Site. During the Unified Silla period, Tang cultural influences were widely diffused within Silla and their metalworking culture was being actively and broadly absorbed. However, Silla reshaped these Tang elements into its own unique products. Goguryeo, Baekje, and the Gaya Confederacy A number of items produced either directly in Goguryeo or in the style of Goguryeo has been unearthed from the ancient tombs of Silla. These include a bronze lidded bowl from Houchong Tomb, a silver lidded bowl from Seobongchong Tomb, and a copper jar with four handles from Geumgwanchong Tomb. These three items are likely to be imported Goguryeo products. Though it is difficult to pinpoint precisely where they originated, the metal vessels unearthed from the royal tombs of Silla are likely to be ritual vessels created under the influence of Goguryeo. The gold earrings discovered under the North Mound of Hwangnamdaechong Tomb (Fig. 18) are similar to a pair discovered in Maseongu Tomb No. 1 (麻線溝) in the present-day Jian region of China. This clearly demonstrates the import of Goguryeo products to Silla. Fig. 18. Earrings from North Mound of Hwangnamdaechong Tomb. 5th century. Gold. L. 2.9 cm. Gyeongju National Museum Abundant elements stemming from Goguryeo were found in Silla during the period of wooden chamber tombs with stone mounds. This is largely due to the friendly relations enjoyed by the two neighboring kingdoms after the late fourth century and well into the mid-fifth century. It is presumed that many craftworks from Goguryeo were brought into Gyeongju during this time. Their relations experienced a brief period of tension when Silla killed the Goguryeo commander of border garrison (邊將) in 450, but they quickly recovered. Up until King Jinheung (眞興王, r. 540–576) attacked the Hangang River valley in 551, Silla and Goguryeo remained allies, and considerable goods and culture from Goguryeo were introduced to Gyeongju during this time (Choe Jonggyu 1983). Silla and Baekje struggled for supremacy over the south-central area of the Korean Peninsula. However, the two stood shoulder to shoulder against any Goguryeo drive southwards. Historical records relate that Silla and Baekje exchanged specialists and established strategic marriages. These events and processes also entailed cultural and material exchanges. Opinions are divided on the origins of the gilt-bronze shoes discovered in Singnichong Tomb (飾履塚, Fig. 19). Some believe that they are Chinese products manufactured under the influence of the Southern Qi (479–502) in China, whereas others view the production site to be Baekje or Silla. Each shoe is comprised of three gilt-bronze plates decorated with hexagonal patterns surrounding a variety of auspicious motifs, including birds and mythical creatures such as girin (麒麟, Ch. qilin). This design is similar to one observed in the Baekje-period metal shoes excavated from Stone Chamber No. 4 of Bongdeok-ri Tomb No. 1 in Gochang and the stone chamber of Jeongchon Tomb No. 1 in Naju. Fig. 19. A Pair of Shoe Soles from Singnichong Tomb. 5th century. Gilt-bronze. L. 32.0 cm. National Museum of Korea Seeking to break free from Goguryeo interference, by the 430s Silla had established friendly relations with the Gaya Confederacy and Baekje and a period of peace followed. Such amicable diplomatic ties are manifested in items originating from the allied states, as seen in examples of findings from ruling-class tombs. A Gaya-style sword unearthed from Signichong Tomb in Silla is highly similar in its design and details to the sword with dragon and bonghwang (a pair of mythical birds) design excavated from Okjeon Tomb No. M3 in Hapcheon. Among the swords with ring pommels unearthed from Silla royal tombs, this one is highly unique and is presumed to have been imported from Gaya. Central Asia Metalwork originating from Central Asia has also been discovered in Silla tombs. Examples include the gold bracelet from the North Mound of Hwangnamdaechong Tomb and the ornamented sword from Gyerim-ro Tomb No. 14 (Fig. 20). While scholars dispute over the origins of the former item, there is a consensus that the latter must to have been produced in Central Asia. The sheath and hilt of this sword are made of gold. Thin strips of gold are applied along the edges of the sheath, creating cells that were then decorated with dark red garnets. A sword with similar decorative features dated to the fifth century was found in Borovoye, Kazakhstan and is currently housed in the State Hermitage Museum in Russia. Studies on the sword discovered in Gyerim-ro have suggested that it was produced in either Iran or Central Asia (穴澤咊光・馬目順一, 1980). Fig. 20. Dagger and Sheath from Gyerim-ro Tomb No. 14. 5th century. Gold inlaid with garnet and glass. L. 36.0cm. Gyeongju National Museum As seen above, metal items with diverse origins, not only from neighboring nations such as Goguryeo, Baekje, the Gaya Confederacy, and China, but also from Central Asia, have been unearthed at Silla sites. The origins of the foreign cultural elements exhibited in the metalwork of Silla vary by period. The craftworks in the most distinctive “Silla style” are those deposited in the wooden chamber tombs with stone mounds, and gold crowns and metalwork are the most notable among the ample numbers of objects uncovered from these tombs. The origins of the metalwork discovered in Silla royal tombs can be traced through the kingdom of Goguryeo, which at the time maintained close diplomatic ties with Silla. Given the fluctuations in international conditions, when Silla’s relations with other nations improved, superior examples of their metalwork were brought into Silla. This added to the foundation for the development of the metalworking culture of Silla. Conclusion The nobility of the Silla kingdom began to apply metalwork as means to display their power and authority. They packed tombs with metal items to prepare for the afterlife, and kept them in their living quarters as well, including the royal court and residences. Around the time when the influence of Buddhism stretched across society, large-scale temples were constructed with a variety of metal items symbolizing the authority of the Buddha enshrined inside. Some of these objects constitute a portion of the Silla metalwork that has been discovered across various sites in the city of Gyeongju. The production of ornamental metalcrafts in Silla began in the late fourth century, around the time of the construction of the Wolseong-ro No. ga-13 tomb. Although few objects from this period have been discovered, it is highly likely that the metalworking culture of Silla traces back to Goguryeo. After the mid-fifth century, there was a surge in demand for metalwork, which eventually fueled the development of the skills possessed by Silla artisans. Accordingly, a unique Silla style was established by which their metalwork can be clearly differentiated from the products of surrounding nations. After the mid-sixth century, gold adornments, including gold crowns, seem to have suddenly ceased to be produced. This can be attributed to social shifts taking place at the time. Almost no decorative metalwork has been discovered dating from the late sixth century to the period of the war for unification of the three kingdoms. The metalworking culture of Silla underwent renewed development only after the unification of the peninsula. Most of the surviving metalwork from the Unified Silla period was excavated from Wolji Pond. Many distinct items from different periods were uncovered in relatively good condition from the pond, and these findings provide a crucial reference for examining the era’s metalwork, production techniques and international trade. Moreover, the sarira reliquaries discovered from the three-story stone pagoda at the Hwangboksa Temple Site, east and west pagodas of Gameunsa Temple, and five-story stone pagoda of Nawonri Temple are particularly notable since they feature both elegant form and sophisticated decorative techniques. As was mentioned, the metalwork discovered in Gyeongju embodied the aesthetics of the Silla people and reflects the history of the kingdom. The artisans commissioned for the work were not simply technicians, but artists in their own right. They were required to embrace cultural elements from China, the lodestone of East Asia, in a timely manner. In this light, works created by these artisans are not simply crafts made of metal. Rather, they can be viewed as time capsules preserving the history and culture of the kingdom of Silla.
January 2014, vol.8, pp.44-61 DOI : https://doi.org/10.23158/jkaa.2014.v8_04
In 475 CE, the Baekje Kingdom (百濟) was on the verge of collapse after Goguryeo (高句麗) forces suddenly attacked the capital city of Hanseong (near present-day Seoul). Baekje’s King Gaero (蓋鹵王, r. 455-475) was killed in the attack, leaving the kingdom in the hands of his brother Munju (文周王, r. 475-477), who had just returned from Silla (新羅), where he had traveled to request military assistance against Goguryeo. Having little choice but to abandon the capital, Munju retreated southward with other members of the royal court and central government, establishing a new Baekje capital in Ungjin (presentday Gongju). Ungjin would remain the capital until 538, when the capital was again moved southwards to Sabi (present-day Buyeo). Ungjin’s time as the capital (475-538) was relatively short-lived, but this important period in Baekje history has been illuminated by numerous artifacts and sites found scattered throughout the Gongju region. To date, a relatively large number of tombs dating to the Ungjin period have been excavated, due in part to a series of research investigations that was carried out for the express purpose of identifying Baekje royal tombs in and around Gongju. Of the excavated tombs, the most exceptional is the Tomb of King Muryeong, which was discovered in 1971. Epitaph plaques inside the tomb confirmed the identity of the deceased as King Muryeong (武寧王, 462-523, r. 501-523) and his queen consort (d. 526). Moreover, the plaques also provided detailed information about the funerary rites that had been undertaken for the king and queen. This paper examines fine metalwork artifacts of Baekje that have been recovered from Ungjin-period tombs in the Gongju region. First, the artifacts are compiled and described, and then the development of Baekje metalwork is discussed in order to explicate various aspects of Baekje society. II. Characteristics of Baekje Metalwork Artifacts from Ungjin-period Tombs 1. Personal Ornaments and Decorative Objects The two types of metalwork artifacts most frequently found in the tombs of the Ungjin period are personal ornaments and decorative objects. The majority of such artifacts come from the Tomb of King Muryeong, but related artifacts have been recovered from other tombs of the Songsan-ri tumuli group, tombs of the Geumhak-dong tumuli group, Botonggol Tomb 17, and Ungjin-dong Tomb 8. This first section of the paper presents the types of Ungjin Baekje metalwork items that have been found and the characteristics of their production techniques. 1) Personal Ornaments: Personal ornaments from Ungjin-period tombs include crown ornaments, earrings, necklaces, bracelets, rings, belt ornaments, and gilt-bronze shoes, many of which were found within the Tomb of King Muryeong. Most of these personal ornaments appear to have been worn by the living prior to being placed in the tomb, with the exception of the gilt-bronze shoes, which were made specifically as funerary items. For example, the king’s earrings bear traces of repair, implying actual use before burial. In addition, an inscription on the silver bracelets that accompanied the queen indicate that they were made in the second month of the gyeongja year (庚子年, 520 CE) six years prior to the queen’s death. Finally, the crown ornaments of the king and queen appear to match the description of the “golden flowers” mentioned in Jiu Tang Shu (舊唐書), or Old Book of Tang, a Chinese historical text. All of these details indicate that the personal ornaments found within the tombs likely had been used prior to the death of the deceased. Crown Ornaments: Two pairs of gold crown ornaments were found in the Tomb of King Muryeong—one for the king (Fig. 1a) and one for the queen (Fig. 1b). To date, these are the only crown ornaments that have been found in the Gongju area. The king’s crown ornament features an arabesque and flame pattern and is adorned with gold spangles. In contrast, the queen’s crown ornament is bilaterally symmetrical and lacks gold spangles. Again, these ornaments would seem to match the reference to the “golden flowers that adorned black silk caps” mentioned in the Jiu Tang Shu. Unlike the Silla gold crowns from tombs such as Hwangnamdaechong and Cheonmachong, which were made specifically for funerary purposes, the crown and crown ornament recovered from the Tomb of King Muryeong were apparently worn by the king during his lifetime, as evinced by the Chinese records. No silver crown ornaments have yet been found in the tombs of the Ungjin period. Figs. 1a and 1b. King’s crown ornaments (upper) and Queen’s crown ornaments (lower) from the Tomb of King Muryeong. (Gongju National Museum). Earrings: Earrings have been found in several Ungjin-period tombs, including the Tomb of King Muryeong, Songsan-ri Tomb 6, a tomb from Gyo-dong,1 and Jumi-ri Tomb 3. In particular, the characteristic features of Ungjin-period Baekje earrings can be seen in two gold earrings from the Tomb of King Muryeong. The main hoops of the king’s earrings (Fig. 2a) are connected to cylindrical “middle ornaments” with many delicate features. Each middle ornament has a separate upper and lower half formed by three small wing-shaped panels, which were welded together to form a small cylinder. In contrast, the middle ornaments of the queen’s earrings (Fig. 2b) are composed of dark green glass beads with round “caps” made from small rings. The use of glass beads in the middle ornaments is considered a characteristic feature of Baekje earrings of the Ungjin period. Figs. 2a and 2b. King’s earrings (upper) and Queen’s earrings (lower) from the Tomb of King Muryeong. (Gongju National Museum). Although they both feature glass beads, the two earrings from Gyo-dong (Figs. 2c and 2d) cannot be regarded as a pair, as they differ in size and in the style of their middle ornaments. Reports indicate that earrings with cylindrical middle ornaments, like those frequently used in Silla, were found at Jumiri Tomb 3; however, if those earrings still exist, their whereabouts are unknown. Figs. 2c and 2d. Earrings from a tomb in Gyo-dong. (Gongju National Museum). Necklaces, Bracelets, and Rings: The Tomb of King Muryeong yielded two necklaces consisting of faceted cylindrical segments; one necklace has nine such segments (Fig. 3a), while the other has seven. Each of the individual segments is thickest at its center and is slightly curved to conform to the necklace’s circular shape. The ends of each segment were extended into long wires that were bent into rings, by which the segments were connected, and then wrapped around the ends of the segment. The same technique was used to make the gold and silver bracelets from the Tomb of King Muryeong and the silver bracelet from a tomb from Songsan-ri. Fig. 3a. Necklace of nine faceted cylindrical segments from the Tomb of King Muryeong. (Gongju National Museum). Many bracelets have been excavated from Ungjin-period tombs, including six pairs discovered in the Tomb of King Muryeong. The most famous are two silver bracelets bearing an inscription (多利作) that can be translated as “made by Dari” (Fig. 3b). These bracelets form a pair, but they can be distinguished by slight differences in their decoration, suggesting that they were not made from the same mold. Even so, given their almost identical size and the lack of welding marks on the surface, it is possible that the bracelets were cast from the same mold and then individually decorated. Gold and silver bracelets from the Tomb of King Muryeong were decorated with notched patterns, but no such patterns appear on silver bracelets from Botonggol Tomb 17 and Ungjin-dong Tomb 8. Rings were found in Geumhak-dong Tombs 14, 16, and 18, but no rings were found in the Tomb of King Muryeong. Fig. 3b. Silver bracelet from the Tomb of King Muryeong, with the inscription “made by Dari.” (Gongju National Museum). Belt Ornaments: Belt ornaments have been found only in the Songsan-ri tombs, including the Tomb of King Muryeong (Fig. 4a). The belt buckles are generally shaped like mushrooms, as exemplified by the examples from the Tomb of King Muryeong and other Songsan-ri tombs. Whereas the buckles are standardized in form, the plaques forming the actual belts come in a variety of shapes, including square, oval, and inverted heart. In addition, Baekje belt plaques also feature diverse decorative motifs, as opposed to Silla belt plaques, which are uniformly decorated with three-pointed leaf motifs. The belt ornament from the Tomb of King Muryeong features an interesting contrast between the white-silver plaques and darker gold spangles, providing a glimpse into Baekje aesthetics. The belts were further embellished with various types of dangling pendants. For example, the belt from the Tomb of King Muryeong has pendants shaped like a toad (symbolizing the moon, Fig. 4b), an animal face (Fig. 4c), and a white tiger and jujak (朱雀, a mythical vermillion bird), both of which appear on an elongated rectangular plate. Figs. 4a, 4b and 4c. Belt ornaments from the Tomb of King Muryeong, a toad-shaped pendant, and an animal-face-shaped pendant. (Gongju National Museum). Songsan-ri Tomb 1 yielded two square belt plaques made of silver, each decorated with a simplified arabesque pattern in openwork (Fig. 4d). These artifacts are typical of Silla belt plaques and closely resemble those found in Geumgwanchong Tomb of Silla. In fact, the belt plaques from both tombs employed the same manufacturing technique, indicating that the Songsan-ri Tomb 1 plaques were Silla products that found their way into Baekje hands. How these Silla belt plaques were introduced into Baekje territory remains unknown, but it likely had to do with the alliance between Silla and Baekje, which began around 430 and continued until 551. Fig. 4d. Two square belt plaques made of silver from Songsan-ri Tomb 1. (Gongju National Museum). Gilt-bronze Shoes: The Tomb of King Muryeong is the only Ungjin-period Baekje tomb to have yielded gilt-bronze shoes. Each shoe had three respective components: an outer openwork sheath, an inner plate, and a base. Each component was made from separate metallic sheets composed of an inner layer of silver and an outer layer of gilt-bronze. The shoes of the king (Fig. 5a) and queen (Fig. 5b) are similar in terms of general appearance and production technique, but they show different types of decoration. The surface of each shoe is divided into hexagonal sections, resembling a tortoiseshell pattern, and each section is decorated with openwork phoenix and arabesque motifs. Baekje shoes were produced with an entirely different technique than shoes found in Goguryeo and Silla tombs. Baekje production techniques closely resemble those of sixth-century shoes from the Japanese Archipelago, which reflects the close political relationship that existed between Baekje and the Japanese Wa (倭) state at that time. Figs. 5a and 5b. King’s shoes (left) and Queen’s shoes (right) from the Tomb of King Muryeong. (Gongju National Museum). 2) Decorative Pendants: Decorative pendants made from both gold and silver (Fig. 6) were discovered in the Tomb of King Muryeong. These pendants show diverse shapes, including flowers, four-leaf figures, leaves, circles, and teardrops. The precise function of these pendants is unclear, but they may have been used to embellish clothing or wooden coffins. One of the flower-shaped silver pendants bears the inscription “140” (一百卌). Flower-shaped silver pendants were also found in Songsan-ri Tomb 2, and flower-shaped gold pendants were found in Geumhak-dong Tombs 2 and 24. Leaf-shaped ornaments were discovered in Songsan-ri Tombs 5 and 8, in Geumhak-dong Tomb 2, and in the stone-chamber tomb at Ongnyong-dong San 20-1 beonji. Fig. 6. Gold decorative pendants from the Tomb of King Muryeong. (Gongju National Museum). 2. Ornamental Weapons A limited number of ornamental weapons of the Ungjin period have been recovered from the Songsan-ri tombs. The decorated sword from the Tomb of King Muryeong (Fig. 7a) clearly ranks among the finest examples of Baekje metalwork from the Ungjin period. This ornate sword, which hung from the king’s waist on his left side, features a ring-shaped pommel decorated with a dragon motif, which was delicately cast using the lost-wax technique. At both the top and bottom of the sword’s grip, there are small decorative panels with phoenix and arabesque patterns inside tortoiseshell frames. Each of these designs and the tortoiseshell frames were produced separately and then welded to make the panel. The space between the upper and lower panels is filled with alternating rows of tightly wound gold and silver wire. Aside from its obvious splendor, this sword is an extremely significant artifact, as it is the only example of a ring-pommel sword with dragon or phoenix design that can be dated with confidence. The elaboration of the designs inside the decorative panels reflects the highest degree of craftsmanship and the most advanced technical skills, making this one of the most magnificent decorative swords in all of East Asia. Ring-pommel swords were also discovered in Songsan-ri Tombs 1 (Fig. 7b) and 6, while Songsan-ri Tomb 29 (Fig. 7c) yielded a sword decorated with dragon and arabesque patterns inlaid in gold. Fig. 7a. Decorated sword from the Tomb of King Muryeong. (Gongju National Museum). Fig. 7b. Ring-pommel sword from Songsan-ri Tomb 1. (Gongju National Museum). Fig. 7c. Dragon and arabesque patterns inlaid in gold on a sword from Songsan-ri Tomb 29. (Gongju National Museum). 3. Metal Vessels and Mirrors Various metal vessels were found in the Tomb of King Muryeong, the most exquisite of which is a covered cup and accompanying saucer made of silver, brass, and cupro-nickel (Fig. 8a). The silver cup and its cover are elaborately engraved with lotus blossoms, phoenix, mountains, and trees, while the saucer features an impressive design of a Kalavinka (迦陵頻伽, a mythical creature with a bird’s body and a human head) holding a lotus blossom. The shape of the cup and its cover harmonize well with these diverse images. Several types of copper vessels were found in the Tomb of King Muryeong, including bowls (Fig. 8b) that were formed through casting, wrought through hammering, and then finished by being spun on a potter’s wheel. Bowls with similar shapes and production techniques have also been found in Jisan-dong Tomb 44 in Goryeong, Okcheon Tomb M3 in Hapcheon, and Gyeongsan-ri Tomb 2 in Uiryeong. All of these tombs are located within the former territory of Daegaya (大加耶), but the bowls likely originated in the Baekje Kingdom. Fig. 8a and 8b. Covered cup and accompanying saucer (8a) and copper bowl (8b) from the Tomb of King Muryeong. (Gongju National Museum). Also of great interest are three bronze mirrors from the Tomb of King Muryeong (Fig. 8c). One mirror bearing an inscription reading “Uijason” (宜子孫, Ch, yizisun)2 and featuring a decorative band of animal figures (獸帶, Ch. shoudai) (Fig. 8c left) was found near the king’s head. Another bronze mirror with a decorative band of animal figures was found near the head of the queen, while a third mirror featuring a square decorative panel surrounded by mythical animals (方格規矩神獸紋鏡, Fig. 8c middle) was placed near the king’s footrest. These types of mirrors were modeled on the Chinese “shoudai mirrors” (獸帶鏡), which were made during the Han (漢, 206 BCE-220 CE) and Wei (魏, CE 220-265) dynasties. However, the decorative figures and patterns on the mirrors from the Tomb of King Muryeong are somewhat less distinct than those typically seen on Chinese shoudai mirrors, suggesting that the Baekje mirrors may be imitations produced at a much later date. Even so, it is difficult to determine whether the mirrors from the Tomb of King Muryeong were made by Baekje or by Chinese craftspeople. Such bronze mirrors were symbolic objects used by the elite, rather than everyday items. As in the Bronze Age, the mirrors of Korea’s Three Kingdoms period were one of several types of objects used to symbolize the priestly role held by the king and other members of the elite. Notably, a bronze mirror in Japan was cast from the same mold as the mirror with the “Uijason” inscription and bears the same inscription, providing valuable insights into interactions between the Baekje and Japanese Wa states. Fig. 8c. Bronze mirrors from the Tomb of King Muryeong. (Gongju National Museum). As noted, the majority of the metal artifacts excavated from Ungjin-period Baekje tombs in the Gongju region have come from the Tomb of King Muryeong. These include personal objects that appear to have been used by the king and queen prior to their death, as well as objects that were produced or imported during the early years of the reign of King Seong (聖王, r. 523-554), who succeeded to the throne after King Muryeong and thus oversaw the funeral and interment of his predecessor. Many of the artifacts appear to date to the 520s, and all of the artifacts must have been manufactured before 529, when the queen (who died in 526) was finally interred within the tomb. The personal ornaments (including the decorative sword) that would have been worn by the king and queen, along with the everyday objects (e.g., silver cup and copper saucer, other bronze vessels, bronze mirrors, bronze iron) share many similarities with the metalwork objects of other East Asian countries. As such, these artifacts attest to the vital role that Baekje played in the network of international relationships that existed at the time. The metalwork artifacts from the Tomb of King Muryeong include both imported and locally made objects. Conversely, large numbers of metalwork artifacts that were made by the same Baekje craftspeople who produced the articles deposited in the Tomb of King Muryeong have also been found in the territories of Silla, Daegaya, and Japanese Wa. Artifacts from all three of these states also include many local imitations of Baekje metalwork. The Tomb of King Muryeong also yielded metalwork objects, ceramic vessels, and wushu coins (五銖錢) that originated in the Southern Dynasties (南朝) of China. As such, the assemblage of metalwork objects from the Tomb of King Muryeong clearly demonstrates that the people of Baekje maintained close relationships with their neighboring states (i.e., Silla, Daegaya, Wa), engaged in brisk maritime trade with China, and actively transmitted their sophisticated culture to these surrounding regions. III. Baekje Society in the Ungjin Period as Seen through Metalwork 1. Development of Baekje Metalwork Culture Baekje’s overall system for producing metalwork seems to have been adversely affected by the transfer of the capital to Ungjin in 475. Of course, the production of objects made from precious metals depends on the availability of materials, such as gold and silver. At the time, gold was in great demand among the ruling elite of the surrounding regions, including China, and was often included in official exchanges of gifts between countries. The Nihon Shoki (日本書紀) reports that the Japanese, who had no indigenous sources of gold, envied Silla’s resources of gold. Hence, the discovery of fine metalwork artifacts produced with such precious metals attests to the presence of highly skilled craftspeople and workshops. Because of the great value of the material, artisans working with precious metals did not enjoy the relative luxury of “trial and error” that characterized the production of pottery and roof tiles. There was little margin for error, as the precious materials had to be used with the utmost efficiency, with the least possible quantities used to the greatest possible effect. Therefore, the production of fine metalwork objects required the presence of craftspeople with the most advanced technical skills. The results of archaeological excavations suggest that, given the political circumstances of the early Ungjin period, Baekje society simply did not have the aforementioned resources for producing fine metalwork at that time, and thus could not actively produce such objects. The current understanding is that, after moving its capital to Ungjin, Baekje was not able to re-establish its metalwork production system until sometime around the sixth century. The quality and quantity of the metalwork artifacts from the Tomb of King Muryeong suggests that metalwork production had been resumed sometime prior to King Muryeong’s death in 523. The metalwork artifacts of the Ungjin period can be usefully compared to those of the Hanseong period, as both continuities and discontinuities can be identified between the two. Continuity in the Baekje metalwork tradition can be studied by first examining the metalwork artifacts recovered from Suchon-ri Tomb 1 in Gongju, which represents the burial of a Hanseong-period “regional leader.” Fortunately, this tomb seems to have been overlooked by grave robbers, as the personal ornaments and decorated sword of the deceased were found in situ. Characteristics of the “Baekje style” can be seen in these objects, including the giltbronze crown, gold earrings, gilt-bronze belt ornaments, gilt-bronze shoes, and gold-and-silver decorated sword (Figs. 9a through 9e). The emergence of a common artistic style associated with a specific political entity indicates the existence of full-time, specialist craftspeople, who were continuously employed in the manufacture of objects for the ruling elite. The distinctive characteristics of the Baekje style observed in the metalwork of Suchon-ri Tomb 1 were maintained into the Ungjin period, and can also be seen in the metalwork artifacts of the Tomb of King Muryeong. Figs. 9a through 9e. Metalwork artifacts from Suchon-ri Tomb 1: gilt-bronze crown (9a), gold earrings (9b), gilt-bronze belt ornaments (9c), gilt-bronze shoes (9d), and gold-and-silver decorated sword (9e). (Chungnam Institute of History and Culture). Additional examples that demonstrate the continuity between the metalwork of the Hanseong and Ungjin periods are presented in Figure 10. For example, several characteristic features can be identified in the queen’s earrings from the Tomb of King Muryeong (Fig. 2b), including the finishing of the connecting rings, the use of filigree, and the three wing-shaped dangling ornaments. These earrings differ significantly from those from the Hanseong period, but earrings recently discovered in Suchon-ri Tomb 8 (Fig. 10a) have helped to bridge the gap between the two. An animal-face belt plaque from Songsan-ri Tomb 2 (Fig. 10b) shares similarities with examples from Suchon-ri Tombs 1 and 4 (Fig. 10c), which date to the Hanseong period. Based on this similarity, the style of belt plaque from the Suchon-ri tombs may have developed over a number of stages into the style of belt plaque from Songsan-ri. Similar belt plaques have been discovered at Gaya and Wa sites, and they appear to have developed from the Baekje examples. No animal-face belt plaques were found in the Tomb of King Muryeong, nor have any been identified at Baekje sites of the Sabi period (538-660). As such, it appears that, sometime during the Ungjin period, these animal-face plaques were replaced by undecorated belt plaques in the form of inverted hearts. In the case of the gilt-bronze shoes from the Tomb of King Muryeong (Fig. 5a), characteristics include the metal cleats attached to the soles and the overlapping of the sides with the front and back where they are connected. Similar details can also be seen in the shoes excavated from Suchon-ri Tomb 4 and Bongdeok-ri Tomb 1 in Gochang (Fig. 10d), both of which date to the Hanseong period. The size, shape, and structure of the gilt-bronze shoes indicate that, unlike other types of metalwork artifacts, they were not used in everyday life, and thus likely were intended solely as funerary objects. The presence of gilt-bronze shoes in the tombs of both Baekje royalty and regional leaders of the Hanseong period indicates that the funerary practices of the former were carried over into the latter. However, no such continuity has been observed for the Ungjin period. Fig. 10a. Earrings from Suchon-ri Tomb 8. (Author’s photograph). Fig. 10b. Animal-face belt plaque from Songsan-ri Tomb 2. (National Museum of Korea). Fig. 10c. Animal-face belt plaque from Suchon-ri Tomb 4. (Chungnam Institute of History and Culture). Fig. 10d. Shoes from Bongdeok-ri Tomb 1 Stone chamber 4. (Seoul Baekje Museum). Figures 11a and 11b show renderings of two different versions of the “striding-dragon design” (走龍紋), which decorate the ring-shaped pommels of decorative swords from the Hanseong and Ungjin periods, respectively. The motif represented in Figure 11a appears on a sword from the Tomb of King Muryeong, while that in Figure 11b appears on the sword from Yongwon-ri Stone-lined burial 1 in Cheonan. The two designs are similar in terms of overall composition and general arrangement of the dragons, with one dragon head on either side, each facing towards the center. The design on the sword from Yongwon-ri is more symmetrical, however, with the heads of the dragons placed in the exact center. On the sword from the Tomb of King Muryeong, the heads of the dragons extend beyond the central axis to approximately the mid-body of the opposite dragon. The two designs show both similarities and differences, and it is possible that future excavations will uncover intermediate examples that bridge the gap between the two. The dragon ring-pommel decoration of the sword from the Tomb of King Muryeong was once regarded as an exceptional piece, prior to the discovery of decorated swords from Yongwon-ri Stone-lined burial 1 and Suchon-ri Tomb 1. However, recent excavations have uncovered a similar example that predates the sword from the Tomb of King Muryeong by roughly 100 years. Significantly, this recent discovery indicates that the design likely developed indigenously from Hanseong Baekje prototypes, rather than from Chinese sources, as had originally been hypothesized. Figs. 11a and 11b. Comparison of the “striding dragon design” decorating the ringed pommel of swords from the Tomb of King Muryeong (11a) and Yongwon-ri Stone-lined burial 1 (11b). Despite those obvious continuities, some metal-work artifacts found in Ungjin-period tombs show discontinuities with the earlier Hanseong period. For example, the leaf-shaped and flower-shaped gold ornaments shown in Figure 6 and certain sets of metal vessels from the Ungjin period have no close counter-parts among Hanseong-period artifacts. These unique Ungjin artifacts primarily come from tombs in and around Gongju, with most having been recovered from the Tomb of King Muryeong. The only types of metal vessels so far recovered from Hanseong-era sites are bronze braziers and three-legged cauldrons, but the metal vessels of the Ungjin period are much more varied, with the additional inclusion of bowls, plates, cups, and cups with saucers, as well as spoons, chopsticks, and irons (for pressing clothing). Although the diversity of metal vessels can be regarded as another characteristic of the Ungjin metalwork tradition, it is difficult to know which of these objects were produced by Baekje craftspeople and which might have been imported from the Southern Dynasties of China. The advanced metalworking skills of Baekje craftspeople are evinced by a sarira reliquary from the site of Wangheungsa Temple in Buyeo (Fig. 12), which was definitely produced indigenously. Thus, it is certainly possible that most of the metal vessels from the Tomb of King Muryeong were the products of Baekje craftsmanship. One exception would seem to be the iron, which likely was imported, given that similar examples have been found at Southern Dynasty sites in China (Figs. 13a, 13b, and 13c). Fig. 12. Sarira reliquary from the Wangheungsa Temple site and detail. (Author’s photograph). Fig. 13a. Iron from the Tomb of King Muryeong. (Gongju National Museum). Fig. 13b. Iron from Hwangnamdaechong Tomb north mound. (National Museum of Korea). Fig. 13c. Iron from Zhenjiang (鎮江), Jiangsu Province, China (Author’s photograph). What function did the metal vessels placed within the Tomb of King Muryeong serve? Similar vessels recovered from Goguryeo tombs in Ji’an (in China’s Jilin Province) have been interpreted as ritual vessels. Such artifacts include a brazier, tripod cauldron, and covered container from Chilseongsan Tomb 96, and a cauldron, tripod cauldron, steamer, and three-legged bowl from Usanha Tomb 68. A set of Goguryeo ritual vessels was also found in the main burial chamber of the south mound of Hwangnam-daechong Tomb, which is considered a royal tomb. The types of vessels included in these Goguryeo sets appear to have been based upon the sets of ritual vessels used by rulers and aristocrats in the Bronze Age dynasties of central China. However, the vessel types recovered from the Tomb of King Muryeong (e.g., a bronze iron, a silver and copper cup and saucer, copper bowls, and copper dishes) seem more likely to have been everyday items used by the royal family rather than ritual vessels. In contrast, the brazier and three-legged cauldron from Hanseong Baekje sites can be regarded as ritual vessels. Notably, the three bronze mirrors found in the Tomb of King Muryeong also have no known predecessors among Hanseongera artifacts. However, given that the types of grave goods within the royal tombs of the Hanseong period has yet to be identified, the mirrors cannot yet be used to assess the continuity or discontinuity of Baekje metalwork traditions. 2. Monopolization of Metalwork by the Royal Family and its Socio-political Context One topic of considerable interest is the ownership of metalwork objects in the Ungjin period. Figure 14 presents a satellite map showing the distribution of key tumuli grounds located in and around Gongju. The tumuli grounds of Suchon-ri, Chiwirisan, and Singwan-dong date back to the Hanseong period, whereas the tumuli grounds of Songsan-ri, Gyochon-ri, Ungjin-dong, Botonggol, Ongnyong-dong, Geumhak-dong, and Ugeumchi were newly established during the Ungjin period. Some of these tumuli grounds continued to be used in the succeeding Sabi period as well. Fig. 14 - Distribution of the main tumuli grounds in the Gongju region. (➊ Suchon-ri; ➋ Chwirisan; ➌ Singwan-dong; ➍ Songsan-ri; ➎ Gyochon-ri; ➏ Ungjin-dong; ➐ Botonggol; ➑ Geumhak-dong; ➒ Ongnyong-dong; ➓ Ugeumchi). Members of the central elite in the Gongju region during the Hanseong period were buried in the Suchon-ri tumuli ground, while subordinate groups used the tumuli grounds of Chiwirisan and Singwan-dong. All three of these tumuli grounds are located to the north of the Geum River. In particular, a high concentration of metalwork artifacts has been recovered at Suchon-ri. In contrast, the tumuli grounds of the Ungjin period are situated along the hills and mountain ridges to the south of the Geum River. This difference in location is a key distinguishing feature between the tumuli grounds of the two periods. Songsan-ri Tomb 6, the Tomb of King Muryeong (also located within the Songsan-ri tumuli ground), and Gyochon-ri Tombs 2 and 3 all feature burial chambers made of bricks, but the rest of the tombs generally have stone burial chambers with corridor entrances. As Figure 14 illustrates, the tombs of the Ungjin period are concentrated around the areas of Songsan-ri, Gyochon-ri, and Ungjin-dong. The Tomb of King Muryeong yielded various personal ornaments (e.g., crown ornaments, hair ornaments, earrings, belt ornaments, necklaces, bracelets, and gilt-bronze shoes), which were found in situ in the tomb where the deceased had been laid to rest. A large proportion of the metalwork ornaments discovered in this royal tomb consists of the gold and silver decorative pendants shaped like leaves, flowers, rhombuses, and circles. The metalwork artifacts from the Tomb of King Muryeong are impressive in terms of both their quantity and the high quality of their production techniques. This tomb also yielded three bronze mirrors—the likes of which have not been found in other Baekje tombs—as well as fourteen metal vessels. Only a limited number of artifacts have been recovered from the other tombs of the Songsan-ri tumuli ground or from the tombs of the Gyochon-ri tumuli ground (another central burial ground of the Ungjin period) because most of those tombs had been disturbed by grave robbers prior to archaeological excavation. Nevertheless, Songsan-ri Tombs 1, 2, 5, and 29 yielded several belt ornaments that had escaped looting. Even in their incomplete state, these artifacts demonstrate that the tradition of wearing belts with metallic fittings and ornaments, which had been practiced during the preceding Hanseong and succeeding Sabi periods, was also practiced during the Ungjin period. Interestingly, however, unlike the belts of the ensuing Sabi period, the belt ornaments of the Ungjin period do not follow any single style. In the Ungjin period, the regulation of clothing according to social status had not yet been institutionalized, which may explain the relative diversity of styles among the Ungjin-period belts. Since Korea’s liberation from Japan 1945, the only tomb from the central tumuli grounds of the Ungjin period (Songsan-ri and Gyochon- ri) that has been officially excavated is the Tomb of King Muryeong. Excavations have been carried out on the surrounding tumuli grounds (Ungjin-dong, Botonggol, Ongnyong-dong, Geumhak-dong, and Ugeumchi), but none of the excavated tombs has yielded numerous or diverse metalwork artifacts. A few tombs have yielded metalwork artifacts, but these items have been limited in number, usually because the tombs had previously been robbed. However, seven tombs from the Geumhak-dong tumuli ground yielded leaf- and flower-shaped pendants, as well as finger rings. This discovery suggests that more Ungjin-period tombs containing similar types of metal artifacts may yet be found in the Gongju region. Bracelets have been recovered from several tombs, including the Tomb of King Muryeong, another tomb from the Songsan-ri burial ground (the exact tomb number is unclear), Botonggol Tomb 17, and Ungjin-dong Tomb 8. In terms of their shape and the type of metal used, the bracelets from the Tomb of King Muryeong more closely resemble the example from Songsan-ri than the examples from Botonggol and Ungjin-dong. Thus far, the majority of Ungjin-period metal-work artifacts have come from the Tomb of King Muryeong, which is obviously due tot the fact that this royal tomb was not plundered by grave robbers prior to its discovery. However, even taking this fortuitous circumstance into consideration, the metal artifacts from other tombs of this period are extremely limited by comparison. Given that these excavated tombs most likely include tombs of other royal personages and elite members of Ungjin Baekje society, how can this dearth of metalwork artifacts be explained? Of course, grave robbery is part of the answer, as all but one of the approximately thirty excavated tombs had been disturbed prior to excavation; even so, other reasons must also be considered. First, it is possible that grave goods were used more sparingly during the Ungjin period than in the earlier Hanseong era or later Sabi period. Indeed, the burial traditions of the Sabi period—characterized by stone chamber tombs with corridor entrances that were rather sparsely furnished with grave goods—may have been established during the Ungjin period. The Tomb of King Muryeong may be understood as an exception to that general trend. Second, the overall lack of tombs with metalwork artifacts may also be related to the sudden transference of the capital to Ungjin and the ensuing political instability. Some combination of these two factors almost certainly contributed to the decreasing numbers of metalwork objects placed in tombs of the Ungjin period, as compared to the preceding Hanseong period. Despite the general diminishment of metalwork objects used as grave goods, the funerary rituals for the king and queen would still have been carried out according to the highest standards of the time, which likely would account for the abundance of metalwork artifacts recovered from the Tomb of King Muryeong. The burial ground may have been selected and the tomb constructed while the king was still living; in addition, the various objects used in the funerary ceremonies may also have been prepared in advance. According to the epitaph plaques found in the Tomb of King Muryeong, the king and queen were not immediately interred upon their death, but lay in state for a period of twenty-seven months. During that time, the tomb would have been completed, mourners received, and succession to the throne finalized. Although many of the grave goods from the tomb were personal ornaments used while the deceased was still living, some would have been produced exclusively for funerary purposes, as was the case with Silla burials. The Tomb of King Muryeong was built of bricks, its structure based on Chinese tombs of the Liang Kingdom (梁朝) of the Southern Dynasties. Studies of the tomb’s structural elements have identified it as a large-scale tomb of the type reserved for princes or feudal lords (諸侯) of the Southern Dynasties. Chinese craftsmanship is reflected in both the firing of the bricks and in the overall construction of the tomb. The use of a foreign style of tomb and the undertaking of such opulent funerary rituals during the early sixth century may be understood in relation to the need to reinforce or re-establish the eroded power of the king. The royal authority had been weakened in the wake of the military defeat by Goguryeo and the transfer of the capital to Ungjin. As a means of protecting itself from the aristocratic elite, who were becoming more powerful, the royal family may have exercised its authority by monopolizing the use of metalwork objects. IV. Conclusion The metalwork artifacts recovered from the Tomb of King Muryeong are of an exceptionally high standard. The characteristic features of Baekje crafts-manship are most evident in the various personal ornaments discovered in the tomb, including crown ornaments, earrings, necklaces, bracelets, belt ornaments, and gilt-bronze shoes. The decorated sword, bronze mirrors, and metal vessels also exemplify Baekje culture from the time of King Muryeong’s reign. All of these artifacts were produced prior to 529, when the queen was interred in the tomb, and many of them were likely made during the 520s. The sword and personal ornaments worn by the king and queen, along with such everyday objects as the silver cup with copper saucer, bronze vessels, bronze mirrors, and bronze iron, share many similarities with metal objects from neighboring states. As such, these artifacts offer important insights about the network of foreign interaction that existed at the time, with the Baekje Kingdom at its center. The Baekje system of metalwork production appears to have suffered a significant setback with the transfer of the capital to Ungjin in 475. Evidence suggests that the system did not fully recover until sometime around the beginning of the sixth century. A comparison of the metalwork traditions of the Hanseong and Ungjin periods reveals both continuities and discontinuities. Continuity is most clearly represented by shared stylistic characteristics among the metalwork objects of Suchon-ri Tomb 1 (Hanseong period) and those from the Tomb of King Muryeong (Ungjin period). At the same time, discontinuity is evident in the sudden reduction in the quantity of metalwork artifacts following the move to Ungjin, as well as in the appearance of decorative objects and sets of metal vessels, such as those found in the Tomb of King Muryeong. The Tomb of King Muryeong is one of the few tombs of the Ungjin period that was never discovered by grave robbers, which at least partially accounts for the abundance of metalwork artifacts discovered therein. However, even taking rampant grave robbery into account, the overall quantity of metalwork artifacts in other tombs of the Ungjin period seems quite limited. The reduced inclusion of metal grave goods may be related to an overall decrease in the use of grave goods during the period, or might be associated with the political instability that followed the transfer of the capital to Ungjin. Finally, it is known that King Muryeong focused on strengthening royal power throughout his reign, and that one of King Seong’s main concerns was to protect the royal family and kingly authority from the aristocratic elite who were becoming more powerful. Given this political situation, it is possible that members of the aristocracy or the regional elite were prohibited from using metalwork objects, which may have been reserved exclusively for the royal family.
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